MUSCULAR  MOVEMENT 
WRITING  MANUAL 


C.  C.  LISTER 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


MUSCULAR    MOVEMENT  WRITING 


MANUAL 


MUSCULAR    MOVEMENT   WRITING 


ELEMENTARY  BOOK     ADVANCED  BOOK 
MANUAL 


MUSCULAR  MOVEMENT  WRITING 


ANUAL 


BY 
C.   C.  LISTER 

DIRECTOR    OF    PENMANSHIP,    BROOKLYN    TRAINING 
SCHOOL    FOR    TEACHERS 


Nefa  fork 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 
1916 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1915, 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  September,  1915.     Reprinted 
April,  August,  October,  1916. 


Nortaooli  ^rtaa 

J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

THE  successful  teaching  of  writing  is  based  upon  well-estab- 
lished principles.  The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  tell  in  as  simple 
and  concise  a  manner  as  possible  just  what  these  principles  are 
and  to  furnish  teachers  such  definite  information  and  directions 
as  will  enable  them  to  teach  practical  writing  in  an  interesting 
and  successful  manner. 

The  methods  presented  in  this  series  of  lessons  have  been  care- 
fully planned,  and  thoroughly  tested  in  practice  with  a  view  to 
furnishing  an  orderly  presentation  of  the  subject  of  Muscular 
Movement  Writing. 

The  chief  features  of  this  manual  may  be  stated  briefly  as 
follows :  — 

1.  The  importance  of  pedagogical  methods  of  teaching  writing 
is  emphasized. 

2.  Sufficient  treatment  of  the  theory  of  the  teaching  of  writing 
is  given  to  enable  teachers  to  realize  the  very  definite  purpose  of 
each  step  in  these  lessons. 

3.  A  definite  purposeful  plan  is  suggested  for  the  teaching  of 
each  letter  and  figure.     Common  difficulties  are  anticipated  and 
their  remedies  supplied. 

4.  Photo-engravings  of  common  faults  peculiar  to  each  letter 
are  given  to  guide  the  teacher  in  the  development  of  each  lesson. 

5.  The  letters,  both  capital  and  small,  are  classified  according 
to   their   fundamental   movements   and   are   presented   in   their 
natural  sequence. 

Actuated  by  a  desire  to  make  the  instruction  in  this  useful 
subject  interesting  and  effective,  this  manual  has  been  written, 
and  the  author  ventures  to  hope  that  it  will  commend  itself  to  the 

favorable  consideration  of  teachers  of  writing. 

C.  C.  LISTER. 
V 

2056773 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAOB 

I.     INTRODUCTION 1 

II.     MUSCULAR  MOVEMENT  WRITING 18 

III.  How  TO  TEACH  CAPITAL  LETTERS 24 

IV.  How  TO  TEACH  SMALL  LETTERS 30 

V.     How  TO  TEACH  WORDS .35 

VI.     How  TO  TEACH  THE  SENTENCE 42 

VII.     THE  FIRST  LESSON 47 

VIII.     How  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 58 

IX.     How  TO  TEACH  FIGURES 105 

X.     THE  USE  OF  THE  BLACKBOARD 109 

XI.  AGE  AND  GRADE  IN  WRITING  .                                                .    Ill 


VI 


MUSCULAR   MOVEMENT  WRITING 


MANUAL 


MANUAL 

CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 

SOCIAL  and  business  standards  in  writing  demand  legi- 
bility, ease,  and  speed.  In  order  to  measure  up  to  these 
requirements  one  should  be  able  to  write  plainly  and  rapidly. 
All  instruction  and  practice  in  writing  should  have  these 
ends  in  view. 

The  style  of  writing  has  undergone  many  changes  during 
the  past  half  century.     One  style  after  another  has  been 
tried  and  dropped.     The  prevailing  opinion  seems  The  ^  or 
to  have  been  that  the  unsatisfactory  results  were  tance  of 
due  to   the   particular   style  of    writing  in   use. 
Some  styles  of  writing  are  better  than  others,  it  is  true, 
but  the  poor  penmanship  has  been  due  more  to  inefficient 
methods  of  teaching  than  to  the  style  of  writing  taught. 

The  demand  for  freedom  and  ease  in  writing,  as  well  as  for 
good  form,  has  developed  a  principle  that  controls  largely 
the  training  in  the  movements  and  the  practice  of  the  move- 
ments which  produce  good  writing.  This  principle  expresses 
the  fundamental  conditions  of  writing,  which  are  the  health 
B  1 


MANUAL 

of  the  body  and  of  the  special  organs  that  are  immediately 
concerned  in  writing. 

In  teaching  Muscular  Movement  Writing,  the  physical 
and  mental  training  is  of  fundamental  importance.  Since 
writing  is  a  means  of  expression,  the  movements  required 
to  write  legibly  and  fluently  should  be  made  automatic. 
The  nerve  and  muscular  elements  should  be  trained,  co- 
ordinated, and  fused  into  a  definite  habit  of  action  in  order 
that  one  may  write  freely  yet  legibly  with  the  least  amount 
of  conscious  effort. 

When  pupils  have  secured,  by  practice,  a  skill  and  fluency 
in  writing,  which  moves  rhythmically  in  accord  with  thoughts 
and  emotions  at  a  fair  rate  of  speed  controlled  by  these 
thoughts  and  emotions,  there  is  little  or  no  attention  to 
special  elements  or  even  words.  The  whole  process  becomes 
a  unit,  a  single  complex  movement,  which  evolves  these 
elements,  but  merely  as  elements  merged  into  the  given 
whole. 

The  best  style  or  type  of  writing  to  serve  as  a  standard  for 
study  and  imitation  is  one  that  is  plain,  devoid  of  needless 
The  ideal  lines  >  that  is,  lines  that  neither  add  to  legibility 
standard  nor  aid  in  execution ;  a  style  in  which  there  is  a 
clear  distinction  between  turns  and  angles,  and 
clear  spacing  between  letters.  It  is  said  that  illegibility 
is  due  more  to  making  such  letters  as  ra's,  n's,  i's,  and  u's 
alike  and  to  the  crowding  of  letters  together  than  to  any- 
thing else. 

The  best  standard  capitals  are  those  that  are  plain  and 
easy  to  make,  and  from  which,  with  slight  modifications, 
other  pleasing  types  of  capitals  may  be  developed,  with- 

2 


INTRODUCTION 


out  bordering  on 
freakish  type  forms. 
A  type  of  capital 
which  makes  it  con- 
venient to  join  to 
the  letter  following 
is  preferable  to  any 
type  that  makes  it 
necessary  to  break 
the  movement  by 
lifting  the  pen.  For 
convenience  in 
teaching,  the  fewer 
variations  in  the 
type  forms,  the  bet- 
ter. This  meets  the 
principle  of  individ- 
ual differences  by  al- 
lowing variations  in 
forms  of  letters  after 
the  standard  letter 
forms  have  been 
learned. 

For  the  purpose 
of  illustration  the 
standard  letters  that 
are  generally  ap- 
proved are  here  in- 
serted. 

In  teaching  it  is 


MANUAL 

important  that  the  letters  be  classified  according  to  their 
fundamental  movements  and  their  basic  features.  Capitals 
and  small  letters  may  be  grouped  as  follows. 

Direct   oval   letters  —  0,    C,   E,   A ;    reverse   oval   and 

straight  line  letters  —  M,  N,  W,  H,  K,  X,  Z,  Q;    reverse 

oval  and  under  motion  —  U,  Y,  V ;   reverse  oval 

—  J,  I;  straight  line  letters  P,  B,  R;   compound 

curve  letters  —  G,  S,  L,  T,  F,  D. 

Oval  letters  —  o,  a,  c;  under  motion  —  i,  u,  w,  e,  s,  r; 
Small  straight  line  —  t,  d;  upper  loop  letters  —  I,  b,  f, 

letters.  ^  ^  ft.  Jower  loop  letters — j,  g,  y,  z,  p,  q. 

A  secondary  grouping  of  small  letters  may  be  made  as 
follows :  pointed  oval  letters  —  a,  d,  g,  q,  p;  over-under 
movement  letters  —  m,  n,  x,  v,  y,  h;  letters  ending  with  a 
horizontal  curve  —  o,  w,  v,  r,  b. 

There  are  two  very  definite  aims  or  purposes  that  should 

constantly  be  kept  in  mind  by  the  teacher  of 

thought.        Muscular    Movement    Writing.     These    aims    or 

writing         purposes  are  (1)  to  establish  writing  habits  that 

habits. 

are  conducive  to  the  physical  welfare  of  the  pupils, 
and  (2)  to  teach  pupils  how  to  write  legibly,  easily,  and 
rapidly. 

It  is  said  that  in  and  above  the  third  grade  in  school 
pupils  sit  eighty  per  cent  of  the  school  day.  When  we  con- 
sider that  a  pupil  spends  the  greater  part  of  the  five  or 
more  hours  in  every  school  day  doing  some  form  of  desk 
work,  the  importance  of  zealously  guarding  correct  habits 
of  posture  at  the  desk  is  self-evident.  Under  normal  con- 
ditions work  requiring  this  position  is  continued  six  years, 
the  most  plastic,  habit-forming  years  of  life. 

4 


CORRECT  POSTURE 

The  pupil  as  a  rule  assumes  a  sitting  posture  in  school 
for  one  of  two  purposes :  to  listen  —  then  the  body  is  re- 
laxed and  reclined  against  the  back  of  the  chair  or  seat; 
or  to  do  some  kind  of  work  upon  the  desk  —  then  the  body 
is  inclined  forward.  The  latter  position  is  the  one  with 
which  the  teacher  of  writing  should  be  particularly  con- 
cerned. When  the  pupil  is  writing  or  drawing,  an  act 
which  requires  a  forward  inclination  of  the  body,  there  is 
the  greatest  tendency  to  let  the  head  droop  forward  and 
downward  and  to  bend  backward  the  middle  of  the  back. 

CORRECT   POSTURE 

The  first  important  problem  to  be  considered  then  in 
learning  to  write  is  that  of  correct  posture.     This  means 
more  than  the  position  of  the  fingers,  the  hands,  correct 
and  the  arms ;   it  means  the  position  of  the  whole  P°sture- 
body.     Correct  posture  should  be  maintained  that  writing 
may  be  done  in  a  healthful  and  convenient  manner. 

Children  should  be  encouraged  to  follow  directions  for 
correct  posture  with  enthusiasm.     One  of  the  best  ways 
to  create  initiative  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  is  to  Howto 
explain  to  them  very  carefully  and  clearly  the  teach  cor- 
reason  for  doing  the  particular  thing  they  are  asked 
to  do.     It  is  a  good  plan  to  discuss  the  problem  and  each 
new  step  in  the  problem  with  the  class.     They  should  be 
told  that  sitting  in  a  collapsed  position  with  the  body  bent 
over  the  edge  of  the  desk  and  with  the  chest  curved  in  pre- 
vents natural  breathing,  interferes  with  digestion,  circula- 
tion, and  the  natural  functioning  of  the  vital  organs.     When 
the  chest  curves  inward  the  lungs  do  not  have  enough 

5 


MANUAL 

room  in  which  to  expand  fully,  and  if  the  pupil  cannot 
breathe  enough  good,  fresh  air,  the  blood  will  not  be  pure. 
If  the  blood  is  not  kept  pure,  the  body  cannot  resist  disease. 
Unless  the  body  is  held  up  in  good  position,  other  organs  of 
the  body,  which  digest  the  food,  cannot  do  their  work  well. 


Fig.  2 
The  correct  writing  posture 

The  pupils  should  also  be  shown  by  demonstrations  that 
it  is  impossible  to  get  the  best  results  in  writing  unless 
correct  posture  is  maintained.  The  best  writing  can  be 
done  when  the  pupil  sits  in  an  easy,  well-balanced  position. 
It  is  fortunate  that  the  most  healthful  posture  is  also  the 
most  convenient  for  writing. 

6 


CORRECT  POSTURE 

The  teacher  should  realize  that  merely  telling  pupils 
how  they  should  sit  is  not  teaching  correct  posture.  One 
has  not  taught  posture  until  the  pupils  assume  correct 
posture  habitually  and  maintain  it  as  a  result  of  persistent 
training.  In  teaching  posture  the  teacher  of  writing  can  co- 
operate with  the  director  of  physical  training  in  guarding 
the  physical  welfare  of  children. 

If  pupils  unconsciously  assume  incorrect  posture,  it  is 
evident  that  the  muscles  which  must  hold  the  body  in  a 
correct  posture  are  weak.  These  weakened  muscles  can 
be  strengthened  only  through  persistent  exercise.  This 
exercise  necessitates  cooperation  on  the  part  of  the  pupils 
and  the  teacher.  The  pupils  must  be  taught  the  require- 
ments of  correct  posture  and  the  reasons  for  doing  what 
they  are  required  to  do.  This  instruction  will  furnish  a 
motive  for  the  effort  necessary  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  if 
the  desired  result  is  to  be  achieved.  Then  there  must  be 
frequent  reminders  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  prevent 
lapses.  Bain  says,  on  the  subject  of  habit  training : 

"  First,  launch  yourself  into  the  habit  you  aspire  to  gain  with  as 
strong  and  decided  an  initiative  as  possible.  Second,  never  suffer 
an  exception  until  the  new  habit  is  securely  rooted  in  your  life. 
Third,  seize  the  very  first  possible  opportunity  to  act  on  every  reso- 
lution you  make,  and  on  every  emotional  prompting  you  may 
experience,  in  the  direction  of  the  habits  you  aspire  to  gain. 
Fourth,  keep  the  faculty  of  effort  alive  in  you  by  a  little  gratuitous 
exercise  every  day." 

At  first  the  reminders  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  should 
consist  of  definite  directions.  After  the  directions  and  the 
reasons  for  them  are  understood  by  the  pupils  the  reminders 

7 


MANUAL 

may  be  reduced  to  a  word,  or  at  most  a  phrase.  To  say, 
"Heads  up,"  "Backs  straight,"  "Feet  in  position,"  etc., 
may  be  made  to  mean  as  much  to  the  class  as  a  five-minute 
talk  on  any  one  of  the  foregoing  points.  But  in  the  begin- 
ning the  directions  and  the  reasons  for  them  must  be  given 
in  such  a  way  that  these  phrases  will  call  back  stimulating 
trains  of  thought. 

A  healthful  writing  position  is  frequently  made  impos- 
sible because  of  desks  that  are  not  suited  to  the  size  of  the 
children.     A  desk  that  is  too  high  forces  a  pupil  to 

The  influ-  .  . 

ence  of  raise  his  elbows  too  high  and  to  spread  them  too 
desks  on  far  apart  ^o  be  comfortable.  Or  if  he  does  not 

posture. 

spread  his  elbows  too  far  apart,  he  forces  his 
shoulders  upward  into  an  unnatural  position.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  desk  is  too  low,  the  pupil  is  constrained 
to  bend  forward  to  write,  a  position  which  leads  to  a  droop- 
ing of  the  shoulders  and  contracting  of  the  chest.  The 
near-edge  top  of  the  desk  should  be  about  three  inches 
higher  than  the  point  of  the  bent  elbow  when  the  pupil 
sits  erect  and  holds  his  elbow  against  his  side.  Many 
modern  school  desks  are  easily  adjustable.  Some  unfor- 
tunately require  a  mechanic  to  make  adjustments.  Desk 
adjustments  should  be  made,  otherwise  the  pupils  are  obliged 
to  adjust  themselves  to  the  desks. 

If  the  chair  or  seat  is  too  high,  the  pupil  finds  it  difficult 
The  impor-  to  place  his  feet  flat  on  the  floor ;  and  in  the  effort 
tance  of  the  to  do  so  the  pupil  slides  forward  so  far  as  to  cause 
seat, 'in  excessive  curvature  of  the  lower  part  of  his  spine, 
posture.  jf  j-jjg  cnair  js  too  jOWj  n{s  knees  are  forced 
upward,  causing  a  strain  on  the  muscles  of  the  back  and 

8 


CORRECT  POSTURE 

undue  pressure  on  the  organs  of  the  body.  The  height  of 
the  chair  or  seat  should  be  the  length  of  the  leg  measured 
on  the  under  side  below  the  knee  when  it  is  bent,  and  when 
the  feet  rest  flat  on  the  floor  as  in  a  sitting  posture. 

If  the  seat  is  placed  too  far  from  the  desk,  the  pupil  is 
forced  to  lean  forward  so  far  that  his  body  is  thrown  out 
of  balance  and  his  weight  is  placed  on  his  arms :  or  he  is 
obliged  to  move  forward  and  sit  on  the  front  edge  of  the 
seat.  Either  of  these  conditions  is  detrimental  to  the  best 
hygienic  posture  and  convenience  in  writing.  The  seat 
should  be  so  placed  that  its  front  edge  will  be  directly  under 
the  edge  of  the  desk. 

The  feet  should  be  placed  flat  on  the  floor  in  front  of  the 
chair.  In  this  position  they  serve  to  balance  the  body  and 
relieve  the  weight  that  would  otherwise  be  supported  by  the 
arms.  It  does  not  seem  wise  to  insist  upon  any  exact 
position  of  the  feet,  so  long  as  they  are  kept  flat  on  the 
floor  in  front  of  the  chair.  To  insist  that  one  foot  should 
be  just  so  far  in  front  of  the  other  would  be  to  carry  the 
matter  to  an  extreme  that  would  defeat  the  main  purpose 
of  making  the  pupil  comfortable.  There  are  two  very 
common  bad  habits  that  should  be  avoided,  however : 
(1)  the  placing  of  the  feet  back  so  that  they  rest  upon  the 
toes  of  the  shoes,  and  (2)  extending  the  legs  forward  so  that 
the  feet  rest  upon  the  heels  of  the  shoes.  When  the  feet 
rest  upon  the  toes  the  weight  of  the  body  is  thrown  forward 
upon  the  arms ;  when  the  feet  rest  upon  the  heels  there  is 
a  constant  strain  to  prevent  the  body  from  leaning  back- 
ward against  the  back  of  the  chair. 

The  arms  should  rest  on  the  desk  with  the  elbows  near 


MANUAL 

the  edge  of  the  desk.  The  point  of  the  elbow  of  the  right 
arm  should  be  just  a  little  off  the  desk  to  avoid  bringing 
the  elbow  joint  in  contact  with  the  top  of  the  desk.  See 
Fig.  3.  The  weight  of  the  right  arm  should  rest  on  the 
muscular  cushion  in  front  of  the  elbow.  This  flexible  mus- 
cular support  should  be  used  as  the  pivotal  point  of  move- 
ment. The  elbow  of  the  left  arm  should  be  on  the  edge  of 
the  desk.  If  it  is  permitted  to  hang  off  the  desk,  or  if  the 


Fig.  3 
The  correct  position  of  the  arms  on  the  desk. 

left  elbow  is  pushed  too  far  forward  from  the  edge  of  the 
desk,  the  left  shoulder  will  drop  lower  than  the  right  and 
curve  the  spine.  The  body  should  be  steadied  by  the  left 
arm.  See  Fig.  5. 

If  the  desk  is  too  small  to  allow  the  pupil  to  take 
a  straight  front  position,  it  is  necessary  to  turn  to  a  half 
right  side  position  and  place  the  right  arm  farther  on  the 
desk.  The  desk  is  too  small  to  take  the  straight  front 
position  when  there  is  not  room  on  the  desk  to  rest  the  arm 

10 


CORRECT  POSTURE 

and  push  the  paper  forward  from  time  to  time  while  the 
page  is  being  filled.  The  chief  objection,  however,  to  tak- 
ing the  right  side  position  is  that  the  left  elbow  must  be 
off  the  desk,  thereby  making  it  very  difficult  to  keep  the 
left  shoulder  on  a  level  with  the  right.  Although  this 
might  not  produce  any  serious  results  for  the  adult,  it  should 
be  avoided  if  possible  for  the  growing  pupil. 


Fig.  4 
The  correct  manner  of  holding  the  penholder. 

The  hand  should  glide  on  the  nail  of  the  little  finger  or 
on  the  nails  of  the  little  finger  and  the  one  next  to  it.     The 
fingers  should  be  turned  back  under  the  hand  so  Thehand 
that  some  part  of  the  hard  smooth  nails  will  come  and  the 
in  contact  with  the  paper.     Many  of  the  best  pen-  p< 
men  glide  the  hand  on  the  side  of  the  nail  and  a  part  of  the 
first  joint  of  the  little  finger  only.     This  is  because  the 
back  of  the  hand  and  wrist  turns  slightly  to  the  right  when 
the  muscles  of  the  arm  are  relaxed.     See  Figs.  4  and  6. 

The  penholder  should  be  held  loosely  between  the  first 
11 


MANUAL 

and  second  fingers  and  the  thumb.  The  first  finger  should 
rest  on  the  top  of  the  holder.  It  should  be  slightly  curved 
upward  and  there  should  be  at  least  one  inch  between  the 
end  of  the  first  finger  and  the  point  of  the  pen.  The  second 
finger  should  slip  down  under  the  holder  so  that  the  holder 
will  cross  just  over  the  top  of  the  nail  of  the  second  finger. 
The  end  of  the  thumb  should  be  bent  slightly  and  touch 
the  holder  opposite  the  first  joint  of  the  first  finger.  The 


Fig.  5 
The  direction  in  which  the  penholder  should  point. 

holder  should  rest  against  the  hand  just  back  of  the  large 
knuckle  joint  of  the  first  finger.  The  holder  should  point 
over  the  arm  between  the  elbow  and  shoulder,  —  not  over 
the  shoulder.  See  Fig.  5. 

The  wrist  should  be  raised  from  the  paper  just  a  little 

The  position  so  ^iat  ^  w^  not  Prevent  tne  freedom  of  move- 

ofthe  ment  that  must  come  from  the  muscles  of  the 

arm  and  shoulder.     The  top  of  the  wrist  should 

not  be  held  flat,  but  be  turned  slightly  to  the  right.      This 

12 


THE  POSITION  OF  THE  PAPER 

is  the  natural,  comfortable  position  of  the  wrist  when  the 
muscles  are  relaxed  and  when  the  arm  is  resting  on  a  desk 
of  the  correct  height  for  writing.  See  Fig.  6. 

Many  teachers  of  penmanship  have  aimed  to  keep  the 
wrists  flat;  but  this  was  probably  done  as  an  extreme 
measure  intended  to  correct  the  opposite  extreme  of  turn- 
ing the  hand  so  far  to  the  right  as  to  have  the  side  of  the 
hand  rest  on  the  paper.  The  right  side  of  the  hand  should 


Fig.  6 
The  correct  position  of  hand  and  wrist. 

never  touch  the  paper,  as  it  prevents  the  hand  from  gliding 
smoothly  over  the  paper. 

THE   POSITION    OF   THE   PAPER 

Various  rules  for  the  position  of  the  paper  are  suggested 
by  teachers  of  writing ;   but  if  the  reason  for  turn-  How  to 
ing  the  paper  on  the  desk  is  made  clear  to  pupils  place  the 
little  need  be  said  about  rules. 

There  are  two  principal  lines  of  direction  that  must  be 
observed  in  writing :   first,  the  line  of  vision,  indicated  by 

13 


MANUAL 

dotted  line  AA  in  Fig.  7 ;  and  second,  the  direction  the  pen 
must  move  across  the  page  in  writing. 

The  paper  should  be  so  placed  that  when  resting  the  arm 
on  the  large  muscular  cushion  (B),  it  will  be  easy  to  swing 
the  pen  to  the  right  and  to  the  left  along  the  writing  line. 
This  position  should  be  maintained.  It  permits  the  hand 


Fig.  7 
Diagram  showing  the  position  of  the  paper. 

to  glide  freely  from  the  left  to  the  right  and  makes  possible 
the  easy  flowing  movement  desirable  in  rapid  and  legible 
writing. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  pupils  form  the  habit  of  testing 
the  position  of  the  paper  before  beginning  to  write  by 
swinging  the  dry  pen  back  and  forth  along  the  line.  If  the 
pen  swings  above  or  below  the  line  in  moving  to  the  right, 

14 


THE  POSITION  OF  THE  PAPER 


the  bottom  of  the  paper  should  be  shifted  accordingly.  It 
should  be  made  clear  that  the  only  reason  for  turning  the 
paper  in  writing  is  to  enable  the  hand  to  move  across  the 
page  along  the  writing  line,  using  the  muscular  cushion  in 
front  of  the  elbow  as  a  pivot  and  support  of  motion. 

The  direction  of  all  downward  strokes  —  the  slant  — 
should  be  toward  the  center  of  the  body,  along  the  line  of 
vision  as  indicated  by  line  A  A, 
Fig.  7.  If  the  downward  lines 
lean  too  much  toward  the  right, 
thereby  producing  too  much  for- 
ward slant  (Fig.  8,  AA)  or  if 
the  downward  lines  are  made 
the  direction  of  the  elbow 


in 


Fig.  8 
Diagram  showing  the  line  of  vision. 


of  the  right  arm,  producing  a 
backward  slant  (BB)  the  line 
of  vision  will  cross  the  downward  lines  diagonally. 

This  constant  diagonal  view  will  cause  eye  strain.  The 
line  of  vision  ((7(7)  —  straight  forward  and  backward,  to 
and  from  the  center  of  the  body  —  indicates,  therefore,  the 
correct  direction  of  all  downward  lines.  Since  the  best 
writing  can  be  done  directly  in  front  of  the  center  of  the 
body,  it  is  necessary  to  stop  writing  and  move  the  paper 
to  the  left  two  or  three  times  in  writing  once  across  the 
page.  In  the  lessons  of  the  first  part  of  this  series,  the 
exercises  are  so  planned  as  to  furnish  quarter-line  practice 
with  a  view  to  developing  the  habit  of  moving  the  paper. 
This  is  advisable  in  learning  to  write.  If  students  will  con- 
form to  this  line  of  vision,  or  direction,  a  uniform  and 
individual  slant  will  be  developed. 

15 


MANUAL 

The  paper  should  be  held  in  position  by  the  tips  of  the 
fingers  of  the  left  hand  placed  on  the  paper  above  the  writing 
line.  When  the  paper  is  held  thus  the  left  arm  will  be  in  a 
position  to  support  the  left  shoulder  properly,  and  prevent 
it  from  drooping  forward  and  downward. 


Fig.    9 
Blackboard  diagram  for  line  of  vision. 

As  has  been  explained,  the  line  of  vision  for  one  writing 
How  to         on  a  desk   is  forward  and    backward  —  to  and 

S^ofri    from  the  center  of  the  body-    See  Fig- 7' line 

sion  on  the  A  A.  This  line  of  vision  indicates  the  natural 
blackboard,  direction  of  a\\  downward  lines  when  the  paper  is 
properly  placed  for  writing.  When  one  lifts  the  paper 

16 


THE  POSITION  OF  THE  PAPER 

from  the  desk  and  holds  it  upright  in  front  of  the  eyes,  as 
he  would  in  reading,  the  letters  slant  toward  the  right  in 
conformity  with  the  slant  of  the  letters  written  in  the  usual 
way  on  a  horizontal  line  on  the  blackboard.  But  when 
the  paper  is  properly  placed  on  the  desk  for  writing,  the 
direction  of  all  downward  strokes  corresponds  to  a  perpen- 
dicular line  on  the  blackboard,  as  in  Fig.  9. 

Since  they  usually  study  their  writing  while  the  paper 
is  placed  in  an  oblique  position  on  the  desk,  pupils  will  be 
enabled  to  get  a  clearer  perception  of  the  slant  in  writing 
and  its  visual  advantages,  if  the  teacher  will  sometimes 
illustrate  by  the  use  of  oblique  lines  on  the  blackboard 
which  correspond  to  the  blue  lines  on  the  practice  paper 
properly  placed  for  writing.  See  Fig.  9. 


17 


CHAPTER  II 

MUSCULAR   MOVEMENT   WRITING 

UNDER  normal  conditions  in  writing  the  weight  of  the 

arm  rests  on  the  desk  or  table.     The  power  which  moves 

j         and  controls  the  pen  in  writing  is  either  limited 

movement      to  the  small  and  weaker  muscles  of  the  fingers,  or 

ied  comes  from  the  larger,  stronger,  and  more  endur- 
ing muscles  that  are  located  in  the  arm  and  shoulder. 
When  the  power  is  limited  to  the  muscles  of  the  fingers  it 
is  called  finger  movement.  When  the  power  is  supplied  by 
the  muscles  of  the  arm  and  shoulder,  and  the  weight  of  the  arm 
rests  on  the  muscular  cushion  of  the  forearm,  it  is  called  mus- 
cular movement.  In  finger  movement  writing  the  arm  is 
inactive  and  the  fingers  alone  are  active.  In  muscular 
movement  writing  the  fingers  are  inactive,  or  nearly  so, 
and  the  arm  is  active.  The  untrained  writer,  as  a  rule, 
resorts  to  finger  movement,  largely  for  the  same  reason 
that  a  child  creeps  until  he  learns  to  walk  and  run  —  it  is 
a  means,  however  inadequate,  of  achieving  a  certain  end 
immediately. 

Muscular  movement  as  a  means  of  writing  is  not  a  new 
idea,  though  the  name  may  be  new.  The  use  of  the  large 
muscles  of  the  arm  in  writing  has  been  a  common  practice 

18 


MUSCULAR  MOVEMENT  WRITING 

for  a  long  period  of  time;  indeed  it  has  been  known  as 
muscular  movement  writing  and  taught  in  the  leading  busi- 
ness schools  for  half  a  century  or  more.  Owing  to  the  in- 
sistent demands  for  efficient  writing  and  to  the  conviction 
of  progressive  school  men  that  practical  writing  involving 
ease  and  rapidity  and  good  form  can  be  taught  in  the  pub- 
lic schools,  muscular  movement  writing  is  the  preferred 
and  adopted  method  in  practically  all  schools  in  which  the 
authorities  are  sufficiently  interested  to  require  writing 
embodying  legibility,  ease,  and  speed. 

A  movement  drill  in  writing  is  the  repetition  of  a  single 
stroke  or  character  with  a  view  to  making  the  process  auto- 
matic.    It  may  be  the  repetition  of  a  straight  line,  Movement 
an   oval   form,    a   letter,    a   combination   of   the  drills- 
straight  line  and  oval,  or  the  combination  of  the  oval  and 
a  letter.     The  movement  drills  may  be  divided  into  two 
kinds  :  general  and  specific. 

General  Movement  Drills  are  the  large  exercises  used  to 
develop  and  train  the  muscles  of  the  arm  in  writing,  and  to 
develop  control  and  skill  in  movement  which  General 
executes  writing  with  confidence  and  with  a  light  movei 
but  firm  touch.  The  straight  line  and  the  oval 
(direct  and  reverse)  are  used  as  General  Movement  Drills. 
See  pp.  13,  14,  and  15,  Advanced  Book;  and  pp.  12,  13, 
and  14,  Elementary  Book.  They  should  be  made  two  full 
spaces  in  height  at  first,  and  later  reduced  to  one  space  in 
height  as  an  approach  to  the  size  of  usual  writing. 

Because  of  the  simplicity  of  these  exercises  the  move- 
ment required  to  make  them  becomes  automatic  in  a  short 
time.  The  pupil's  attention  can  then  be  directed  to  other 

19 


ement 
drills. 


MANUAL 

essentials  in  correct  writing.  These  drills  are  not  merely 
incidental  exercises,  to  be  practised  occasionally,  but  basic 
and  prerequisite  exercises  to  all  that  follows.  It  is  well  to 
begin  for  a  long  time  each  writing  lesson  with  some  form 
of  the  general  movement  drills.  Pupils  fall  in  line  quickly 
for  the  proposed  work,  and  do  it  much  more  satisfactorily 
because  of  such  preliminary  exercise. 

A  Specific  Movement  drill  is  one  in  which  a  characteristic 
part  of  a  letter  to  be  taught  is  selected  for  practice.  It 

cific  is  also  a  drill  in  which  some  form  of  a  general 
movement  movement  drill  and  a  letter  form  are  combined. 
The  purpose  of  a  specific  drill  is  to  adapt  the 
movement  developed  in  the  general  movement  drill  to  the 
production  of  letter  forms :  to  help  bridge  a  possible  chasm 
between  movement  in  general  drill  and  movement  in  writ- 
ing letters,  words,  and  sentences.  See  pp.  19,  23,  34,  38, 
Advanced  Book. 

When  pupils  have  achieved  a  desirable  skill  in  a  series  of 
movements  and  can  make  characters  that  are  continuous, 
firm,  clear,  and  graceful,  the  movements  may  be  taken 
up  severally  and  gradually  utilized  in  forming  letters  and 
words.  The  movements  may  be  analyzed  and  parts 
selected  and  combined  with  parts  of  other  movements  in 
making  still  different  characters. 

RHYTHMIC    CONTROL 

An  essential  feature  of  Muscular  Movement  writing  is 
rhythmic  movement  and  control  of  the  fingers,  hand,  arm, 
and  body  in  writing.  Rhythmic  time  and  speed  must  be  main- 
tained at  all  times.  With  the  development  of  the  control 

20 


MUSCULAR   MOVEMENT  WRITING 

will  come  the  clear,  firm,  graceful  lines  which  both  children 
and  adults  admire. 

The  rhythm  or  time  by  which  movement  and  speed  are 
regulated  during  concert  drills  in  writing  practice  may  be 
indicated  in  various  ways  :    by  tapping  a  pencil 
lightly,  by  musical  instruments,  and  in  a  limited  regulate 


way  even   by  the  use  of  the  phonograph.     But 

movement 

no  other  means  serves  the  purpose  so  conven-  and  speed. 
iently  or  so  well  as  the  human  voice.  The  teacher 
who  knows  how  to  modulate  the  voice  and  count  correctly, 
has  little,  if  any,  need  of  mechanical  devices.  The  teacher 
who,  without  being  noisy  and  fussy,  can  indicate  an  even 
continuous  movement  by  a  regular,  evenly  timed  count  ; 
who  can  indicate  slight  interruptions  in  the  movement  by 
accenting  certain  counts;  and  who  can  encourage  care  in 
forming  letters  requiring  slightly  more  time  than  others  by 
prolonging  the  count  where  needed,  is  able  to  wield  a  far 
greater  influence  over  a  writing  class  than  one  who,  through 
lack  of  this  ability,  is  obliged  to  conduct  the  practice  with- 
out rhythmic  movement  drill,  or  rely  upon  a  mechanical 
device.  One  who  does  not  know  how  to  count  correctly 
is  not  able  to  make  good  use  of  a  device  for  marking  the 
time. 

Counting  should  always  be  done  in  a  low,  quiet  tone. 
One  needs  quiet  nerves  for  writing.  Noisy  counting  is 
never  soothing  to  the  nerves,  and  is  always  more  or  less 
distracting  to  pupils  and  especially  to  those  of  a  nervous 
temperament. 

The  teacher  should  know  that  1,  2,  3,  may  be  counted 
in  different  ways.  When  three  numbers  are  counted  over 

21 


MANUAL 

and  over  in  succession  as  one  counts  in  writing,  it  is  very 
easy  to  accent  one  of  the  numbers  and  thus  to  give  to  it 
the  ictus,  or  beat,  that  is  common  to  rhythm.  If  the  accent 
is  placed  on  the  1  in  each  measure,  the  significance  of  the 
count  is  quite  different  from  what  it  is  when  the  accent  is 
placed  on  the  2  or  the  3.  If  the  1  and  2  are  spoken  quickly 
and  the  3  is  prolonged,  the  influence  on  the  movement  is 
entirely  different  from  what  it  is  when  the  1  is  prolonged 
and  the  2  and  3  are  spoken  quickly.  These  variations  in 
rhythmic  counting  can  be  accommodated  to  the  writing 
movement  and  used  to  govern  the  muscular  movements 
perfectly.  It  must,  therefore,  be  obvious  that  counting 
must  be  done  with  intelligence  and  feeling. 

The  teacher  will  have  little,  if  any,  difficulty  in  discrimi- 
nating between  the  correct  and  the  incorrect  count  for  a 
letter  or  drill.  A  few  trials  will  enable  one  who  can  make 
the  exercise  with  the  correct  movement  to  count  for  the 
movement  in  the  correct  time. 

It  has  always  been  difficult  to  indicate  in  a  text  the  cor- 
rect way  to  count  for  the  different  exercises  owing  to  the 
accents  and  the  little  variations  in  time.  The 

How  to 

indicate  the  best  way  seems  to  be  to  indicate  the  correct  time  as 
clearly  as  possible  by  the  punctuation.  Where 
there  is  to  be  an  even,  running  movement  without  any  in- 
terruption, such  as  in  the  continuous  oval  drill,  the  count 
may  be  indicated  as  follows:  1-2-3-^-5-6-7 -8-9-10 — 
1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-20,  etc.  If  an  interruption  is  to  be 
made  on  every  second  movement,  it  is  indicated  as  follows : 
1-2,  3-4,  5-6,  7-8,  9-10,  etc.  If  the  lengthened  time  oc- 
curs on  every  third  count  it  may  be  1-2-3,  1-2-3,  1-2-3. 

22 


MUSCULAR  MOVEMENT  WRITING 

A  warning  is  probably  necessary  at  this  point.  The 
teacher  should  never  continue  the  rhythmic  counting  or 
voice  guidance  until  it  becomes  necessary  to  children  in 
writing.  The  vocal  control  should  gradually  be  withdrawn 
and  the  rhythm  allowed  to  become  incarnate  in  the  children's 
mental-physical  mechanisms.  Children  must  learn  to  de- 
pend upon  their  own  rhythmic  promptings  in  the  last  resort. 

The  element  of  time,  or  rhythm,  constitutes  a  vital 
feature  in  the  teaching  of  muscular  movement  writing. 
The  intelligent  adherence  to  correct  time  in  con-  „ 

The  impor 

ducting  concert  drills  is  one  thing  that  is  revolu-  tance  of 
tionizing  the  teaching  of  writing.  It  is  a  well-  T 
known  fact  that  rhythmic  time  is  a  necessary  stimulus  to 
all  kinds  of  muscular  training,  especially  where  grace,  ease, 
and  continuity  of  motion  are  desired.  Rhythm  encourages 
and  regulates  movement.  In  class  instruction  nothing  else 
serves  so  well  to  create  and  maintain  interest  and  to  unify 
the  work  of  the  class.  Rhythmic  practice  plays  an  im- 
portant role  in  diminishing  the  tensity  and  inducing  the 
relaxed  condition  of  the  writing  muscles  —  a  condition 
always  necessary  to  easy,  rapid  writing.  Rhythm  is  the 
most  important  aid  in  all  motor  activity.  When  we  walk, 
especially  when  we  have  a  long  distance  before  us,  we 
acquire  a  rhythmic  motion  or  swing  that  carries  us  along 
with  ease  and  at  a  good  rate  of  speed  over  the  ground  to  our 
destination.  Tapping  with  a  stylus  in  certain  experiments 
in  the  psychological  laboratory  is  continued  longer  and  more 
efficiently  when  done  rhythmically. 


23 


CHAPTER  III 

HOW   TO   TEACH    CAPITAL   LETTERS 

IT  may  be  assumed  that  the  pupils  are  able  to  make  the 
continuous  oval,  as  shown  in  the  drill  on  page  14,  Advanced 
A  lesson  on  ^°°^'  at  tne  rate  °f  two  hundred  per  minute.  The 
capital  letter  to  be  taught  is  the  capital  0.  Have  the 

pupils  study  carefully  the  copy  on  page  17,  Ad- 
vanced Book.  Secure  their  attention  to  such  features  as 
size,  shape,  delicacy  and  firmness  of  lines,  and  the  final 
stroke,  before  beginning  to  practise. 

Does  the  0  occupy  the  full  space  between  two  blue 
lines  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  the  capital  0  ?  Should  the 

lines  be  light  or  heavy  ?  What  would  heavy, 
questions  tremulous  lines  indicate?  In  making  this  capi- 
onthe  tal  in  what  direction  should  the  pen  be  moving 

lesson. 

when  it  touches  the  paper?  In  what  direction 
should  the  pen  be  moving  when  it  is  lifted  from  the  paper  ? 

The  failure  to  emphasize  these  features  is  almost  certain 
to  lead  to  aimless  practice  and  to  result  in  imperfect  letters. 
If,  for  example,  form  only  is  made  the  important  feature, 
pupils  will  probably  think  that  when  they  can  write  O's  like 

24 


0*0-0- & 


MUSCULAR  MOVEMENT  WRITING 

those  of  Fig.  10,  line  (1),  they  should  be  considered  pro- 
ficient enough  to  pass  to  another  letter.  Of  course  the 
letters  thus  formed  are  legible,  but  the  tremulous  line  is 
evidence  that  the  letters  were  made  slowly,  with  the  finger 
movement.  The  fact  that  letters  are  clear-cut,  smooth,  and 
firm  is  pretty  good  evidence  that  they  have  been  made 
with  the  muscular  movement  and  at  a  good  rate  of  speed. 

The  rate  of  speed  at  which  the  capital  0  should  be  made 
is  easily  calculated.  Allow  two  counts,  as  1-2,  which  is 
correct,  for  each  0,  and  one  count,  3,  for  the  transition,  or 
swing  to  the  point  beginning  the 
next  letter.  Divide  200,  the  num- 
ber of  ovals  made  per  minute,  by 
3  and  you  will  have  the  approxi- 
mate number  of  O's  to  be  made 
in  one  minute.  A  less  number 
of  O's  should  be  required  of  pupils 
in  the  grades  in  which  the  Ele- 

,  Fig.  10 

mentary  Books  are  used. 

Some  benefit  will  be  found  in  having  the  pupils  swing  the 
dry  pen  over  the  copy  properly  placed.     This  will  insure 
them  the  correct  sense  of  position  and  movement,  Directions 
which   will   serve   as   a  guide   in   practice.     The  for  Practice 
teacher  should  count  1-2  for  each  0,  at  the  rate  above  sug- 
gested per  minute  for  this  dry-pen  practice.     With  this 
preliminary  drill  to  develop  sense  of  position  and  move- 
ment, pupils  are  ready  to  write  O's  at  the  same  speed  rate, 
and  as  well  formed  as  possible. 

A  necessary  preliminary  is  to  determine  approximately 
how  many  letters  should  be  written  on  a  single  line.     It  is 

25 


MANUAL 

well  known  that  if  letters  are  crowded  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  writing  is  bad.  If  they  are  unequally  spaced  or 
Preliminary  spread  over  too  large  a  surface,  the  result  is  not 
work  satisfactory.  A  line  eight  inches  long  should  be 

divided  in  four  equal  parts.  One  part,  or  space,  will  ac- 
commodate four  capital  O's,  and  the  entire  line  will  thus 
allow  for  sixteen  O's.  See  page  17,  Advanced  Book.  The 
appearance  will  be  neat,  and  justify  the  attention  given. 
This  does  not  need  to  make  the  work  mechanical,  but  it 
will  tend  to  develop  a  sense  of  proportion  which  is  indis- 
pensable in  a  well-written  page. 

If  after  a  few  moments'  practice  the  teacher  observes  that 
the  rate  of  speed  is  too  great,  she  should  experiment  to  find 
a  better  rate.  She  may  sit  at  her  desk  and  write 
grade  the  with  the  class,  counting  for  the  class  as  she  does 
so.  This  seldom  fails  to  create  initiative  on  the 
part  of  the  pupils,  and  it  guards  against  the  com- 
mon tendency  to  count  too  rapidly.  After  different  rates 
have  been  tried,  find  out  which  has  met  with  the  greatest 
measure  of  success.  Adopt  this  for  a  time,  but  if  the  rate 
be  below  60  letters  a  minute,  work  gradually  to  bring  the 
whole  class  to  a  rate  of  64,  the  number  given  in  the  copy  on 
page  17,  Advanced  Book.  The  teacher  will  need  to  inspect 
the  work  of  each  pupil  quickly,  of  course,  and  note  the 
measure  of  success  in  maintaining  the  rate  of  speed,  the 
form  of  the  letters,  position  and  movement  of  arm  and  hand, 
penliolding,  and  general  posture.  Correct  quietly  partic- 
ular faults  of  position  and  movement  and  encourage  all 
to  achieve  the  speed  desired. 

In  doing  this  the  most  common  fault  in  the  O's  will  be 

26 


MUSCULAR  MOVEMENT  WRITING 

determined.     This    should    usually   be   considered   by    the 
whole  class.     And  in  all   criticism  it  is   well  to  „ 

How  to 

select  for  correction  only  one  significant  fault  at  correct 
a  time.     This  may  well  be,  for  the  first,  the  general 
form  of  the  letter.     The  teacher  of  writing  will  find  the 
most  permanent  benefit  in  having  the  class  discover  pre- 
cisely what  the  defect  may  be  and  how  to  correct  it. 

Suppose  that  for  this  time  the  O's  are  too  narrow,  like 
those  shown  in  Fig.  10,  line  (2).  The  teacher  may  write 
four  or  more  well-formed  O's  on  the  blackboard,  (i)  The 
or  if  copies  are  at  hand  refer  to  the  copy,  and  ^orm" 
write  in  contrast  with  it  a  number  of  narrow  O's  like  those 
made  by  the  pupils.  Then  have  the  class  consider  carefully 
the  difference  between  the  two  kinds  of  O's.  Inquire  as  to 
their  preference  and  so  far  as  practicable  their  reasons  for 
their  choice.  Have  them  try  to  explain  how  to  correct  the 
fault.  With  such  discussion,  practice  may  be  resumed 
and  attention  directed  to  the  making  of  an  oval-formed  0. 
Possibly  some  such  phrase  as  the  following,  Round  0, 
Round  0,  Round  0,  Round  0  for  four  capital  O's  instead  of 
the  1-2  count,  will  effectually  direct  the  attention  to  the 
shape  of  the  0.  This  should  maintain  the  same  time  and 
rhythm  as  the  regular  count. 

A  few  minutes  of  practice  will  show  the  teacher  what 
progress  is  being  made.  Ask  the  pupils  to  select  three  or 
four  of  their  best  O's.  Then  practise  again  to  secure  skill  in 
making  similar  or  even  better  letters.  Check  up  the  best 
letters  in  each  line,  and  compare  with  those  selected  as 
models  to  show  improvement  or  acquired  skill  in  making 
such  letters  continuously. 

27 


MANUAL 

This  exercise  should  have  made  quite  certain  the  pro- 
duction of  the  proper  form  of  the  letter.  Then  the  pupils 

may  be  led  to  find  another  significant  fault  in  the 
quality  of  letters  they  have  made.  We  may  suppose  that 

the  next  general  defect  is  in  the  quality  of  the 
line,  which  is  heavy  as  in  Fig.  10,  line  (3),  and  unlike  the 
quality  of  line  made  in  the  general  oval  exercises.  This 
defect  should  be  studied  and  the  correction  made  clear  to 
all.  As  in  the  former  exercise  it  was  found  that  a  change 
in  the  phrase  used  in  indicating  the  time  also  emphasized 
the  correction,  so  here  a  similar  change  will  work  advan- 
tageously. The  phrase  Light  line,  at  the  same  rate  of  speed, 
will  direct  attention  to  the  quality  of  the  line. 

As  other  faults  are  detected  suggest  corrections  in  like 
manner.  If  pupils  tend  to  finish  the  0  by  swinging  the  pen 
toward  the  right,  as  in  letters  Fig.  10,  line  (4),  instead  of 
upward  as  in  the  copy,  page  17,  Advanced  Book,  direct  them 
by  the  use  of  the  phrase  Swing  up,  Swing  up.  But  take 
only  one  defect  at  a  time  and  secure  its  correction  before 
taking  up  another.  Do  not  slacken  the  speed  nor  change 
the  established  rhythm.  The  results  will  justify  the  efforts 
made.  The  form,  smoothness  of  line,  grace  and  legibility 
of  the  letters  will  be  more  certainly  secured  if  the  same 
standard  speed  and  free  muscular  movement  are  maintained 
throughout. 

The  benefit        It  may  be  well  to  observe  that  pupils  gain  a 
to  be  de-       twof old  benefit  from  such  a  course  of  procedure 

rived  from 

this  as  just  outlined.     They  learn  not  only  to  practise 

criticism.       and  make  good  ietterS9  but  ajso  to  study  intelli- 
gently any  specimen  of  writing.     They  also  form  a  fairly 

28 


MUSCULAR  MOVEMENT  WRITING 

dependable  habit  of  looking  systematically  for  faults  and 
correcting  them  one  by  one.  They  recognize  the  marks 
of  progress  and  are  able  to  measure  the  improvement  made 
from  time  to  time.  This  gives  them  incentive  and  at  the 
same  time  a  reward  that  is  more  valuable  than  any  "prize 
button"  which  the  ambitious  teacher  may  offer. 


29 


CHAPTER  IV 

HOW   TO    TEACH    SMALL   LETTERS 

PRACTICE  of  the  General  Movement  exercise  gives  skill 
in  initiating  and  endurance  in  continuing  regular  movement 
of  arms,  hands,  and  pens.  The  real  teaching  of  muscular 
movement  writing  comprises  (1)  the  technical  teaching  of 
the  twenty-six  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and  (2)  the  combin- 
ing of  these  letters  into  words.  These  letters  must  be  made 
not  only  quickly  and  easily,  but  in  such  a  way  that  they 
are  legible,  simple,  and  pleasing  in  appearance.  The  move- 
ments in  making  these  letters  are  complexes  of  the  move- 
ments acquired  in  the  preliminary  exercises.  By  practice, 
especially  when  the  letters  are  arranged  in  groups  in  accord 
with  their  elements  and  forms,  the  movement  used  in  writ- 
ing each  letter  is  made  automatic. 

There  should  be  a  definite,  purposeful  plan  in  each  lesson. 
Exercises  given  without  plan  or  purpose  soon  become  mo- 
The  lesson  notonous,  and  are  seldom  productive  of  satisfactory 
plan.  results.  Pupils  very  quickly  discover  whether  or 

not  a  definite  plan  is  being  followed.  The  following  order 
for  the  development  of  a  lesson  is  suggestive : 

(1)  Have  the  pupils  study  the  copy  to  be  practised. 

(2)  Have  pupils  become  accustomed  to  the  correct  form  and  speed. 

30 


HOW  TO  TEACH  SMALL  LETTERS 

(3)  Have  the  class  discover  chief  fault  and  offer  a  way  to  overcome 

or  correct  it. 

(4)  Have  special  practice  in  correcting  the  fault. 

(5)  Have  pupils  select  and  mark  the  best  letters,  say  three  or  four, 

and  compare  these  with  the  copy. 

(6)  Have  pupils  continue  practising  with  the  aim  of  making  their 

letters  equal   to   their  best,  and  of  improving  the   best 
wherever  possible. 

(7)  Correct  faults  one  by  one. 


Pupils  should  select  the  important  characteristics  and 
describe  the  letter.  These  characteristics  distinguish  a 
letter  from  all  other  letters,  and  are,  therefore,  A 

A  lesson  on 

indispensable   in   making   writing  legible.     They  the  letter 
are  also  necessary  in  giving  the  letter  a  pleasing  (1)  HOW  to 
appearance.     Pupils  will  not  usually  see  these  char-  study  the 
acteristics  by  merely  looking  at  the  copy.     The 
teacher  must  direct  the  pupils  to  observe  closely  and  cor- 
rectly the  characteristic  features  of  the  letter.     A  useful 
guide  in  questioning  a  class  is  the  anticipation  of  the  com- 
mon faults  in  the  letter  under  consideration.     These  faults 
are  usually  limited  to  two  or  three.     For  example,  in,  teach- 
ing the  small  letter  h  the  teacher  knows  that  some  pupils 
will  make  the  loops  too  long,  others  will  make  them  too 
narrow  and  pointed  at  the  top,  and  some  will  make  the 
final  part  of  the  h,  which  should  be  finished  like  the  small  n, 
sharply  angular  at  the  top. 

The  teacher  may  direct  attention  to  these  points  by  ask- 
ing questions  similar  to  the  following:  "Should  the  loops 
extend  to  the  line  above  the  one  on  which  you  are  writing  ?  " 
"Is  the  top  of  the  loop  in  the  h  pointed  or  round?"  "Is 

31 


MANUAL 

the  top  of  the  last  part  of  the  h  pointed  or  round  ?  "  It  is 
helpful  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  letter  h  is  made 
up  of  parts  of  letters  which  the  pupils  have  previously  prac- 
tised. The  specific  form  of  h  is  thus  taught  by  comparison. 
Pupils  are  to  study  the  small  I  and  the  small  n  to  note  the 
changes  necessary  in  combining  these  letters  into  h.  If 
there  be  time,  pupils  may  review  the  I  and  n  as  a  preparation 
for  their  combination  into  the  letter  h.  It  is  better  to  avoid 
probable  faults  by  emphasizing  the  correct  features  of  letters 
instead  of  showing  these  probable  faults.  Let  it  be  what 
to  do,  not  what  not  to  do. 

One  of  the  chief  aims  of  the  lesson  is  to  have  the  class 

acquire  the  skill  to  make  the  letter  h  at  the  correct  rate  of 

speed.     Unless  this  rate  of  speed  is  gained  and 

(2)  HOW  to     maintained  pupils  will  tend  to  center  their  atten- 

develop  the 

standard  tion  upon  form  only  and  fail  to  learn  to  make  the 
letter  well  at  the  rate  they  should  make  it  in 
rapid  writing. 

Letters  that  are  made  too  slowly,  or  with  the  finger 
movement,  will  generally  be  trem- 
ulous or  wavy  lines  like  those  in 
Fig.  11  (1).  Pupils  should  quickly 
acquire  a  rate  of  movement  insur- 
ing at  least  60  "h's"  per  minute. 
The  count  which  the  teacher  will 
find  useful  is  1-2,  1-2,  1-2,  1-2  for 
each  group  of  four  letters.  This 
rate  is  quite  certain  to  produce 

smooth,  clear-cut  lines.  Although  pupils  may  later  acquire 
a  speed  of  80  letters  per  minute,  the  rate  of  60  will  produce 

32 


HOW  TO  TEACH  SMALL  LETTERS 

the  quality  of  line  desired  and  is  fast  enough  until  uniformly 
well-formed  letters  can  be  made. 

The  third  step  is  the  criticism  by  teacher  and  pupils  of 
the  work  already  done,  with  corrections  to  be  made  where 
needed.  Remember  that  only  the  important  de-  ,. 

V.O_)  JtlQW  lO 

fects  are  first  to  be  noted  and  that  pupils  should  correct 
be  led  to  discover  them  by  their  own  efforts  and  d 
consideration.  Let  us  assume  that  much  of  the  writing  has 
the  appearance  of  line  (2),  Fig:  11.  In  this  specimen  the 
loops  are  too  long.  Pupils  are  to  recall  what  was  em- 
phasized at  the  beginning  of  this  exercise,  that  the  loops 
should  not  reach  the  line  above  that  on  which  they  were  to 
write.  The  exercise  is  then  proposed  of  making  h's  at 
the  usual  rate  of  speed  for  one  minute  without  allowing 
them  to  touch  the  upper  line.  Some  will  succeed,  but 
others  will  require  two  or  more  trials  before  securing  the 
proper  movement-range  for  making  loops  of  the  right  height. 

In  similar  manner  the  other  chief  faults  should  be  passed 
in  review,  with  exercises  especially  adapted  to  correct  them. 
In  line  (3)  the  loops  are  too  narrow ;  in  (4)  the  final  part  of 
the  h  is  angular.  The  discussion  should  always  be  directed 
to  bring  out  clearly  the  fault  and  the  manner  of  its  correc- 
tion. It  lies,  as  one  may  readily  perceive,  in  securing  the 
proper  movement  of  arm,  forearm,  and  hand,  and  the  right 
range  of  movement.  When  pupils  are  able  to  perform  the 
movement  correctly,  securing  the  right  range  or  reach  in 
all  necessary  directions,  then  they  will  be  found  to  be  mak- 
ing letters  that  are  well  formed,  rightly  proportioned,  and 
easily  legible,  at  the  normal  sustained  speed. 

It  frequently  happens  that  the  time  for  the  writing  lesson 

D  33 


MANUAL 

is  too  short  to  cover  all  the  points  necessary  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  letter.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  the 
study  and  practice  of  the  letter  should  be  continued  at  the 
succeeding  lesson  period.  The  purpose  must  be  to  secure 
the  mastery  of  the  muscular  movements  needed  in  making 
each  letter  in  the  best  possible  style,  at  the  optimum  speed, 
before  taking  up  a  new  character  for  detailed  study  and 
practice. 

The   advantages   of   this   procedure   may   be   summarily 
stated  as  follows : 

(1)  Pupils  study  and  practise  intelligently,  with  definite  purpose 

and  increasingly  clear  idea  of  what  is  required. 
(2)  The  purpose  in  all  practice  is  specific  and  definite, 
to  be  at-         (3)  Interest  is  awakened  and  maintained  in  the  con- 
tained by  scious  recognition  of  progress  in  skill  and  results 
^dTe°"  m  writing. 

(4)  Pupils  become  closely  observant,  critical  of  their 
own  products,  and  also  self-reliant  in  working  out  correc- 
tions of  faulty  production. 

(5)  Although  not  to  be  taken  in  too  literal  a  sense,  pupils  do  form 

habits  of  concentration  upon  the  project  in  hand,  which 
may  be  made  use  of  in  certain  allied  kinds  of  activity  and 
interest. 

(6)  The  teacher's  experience  is  turned  to  the  pupils'  profit  in  fullest 


34 


CHAPTER   V 

HOW   TO    TEACH   WORDS 

IN  writing  letters,  either  capital  or  small,  it  is  generally 
recognized  that  the  most  effective  practice  for  developing 
muscular  control  and  skill  consists  in  rapid  rhythmic  move- 
ment done  in  concert  and  under  counting  direction  and 
guidance.  This  sort  of  practice  is  certain  to  produce  the 
desired  results.  A  clear  and  correct  idea  of  the  form  or 
characteristics  of  letters  associated  with  skillful  muscular 
control  in  executing  the  movements  of  writing  will  produce 
letters  that  have  all  the  essentials  of  good  useful  writing. 
But  this  is  so  far  only  a  beginning  of  actual  writing.  Letters, 
however  well  formed  and  graceful  in  appearance,  must  be 
combined  in  varying  ways  with  one  another  in  words,  and  the 
words  in  sentences,  before  one  can  really  be  counted  a  good 
writer. 

It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  almost  all  writing  exercises 
presuppose  a  certain  skill  in  letter  combinations  and  word 
combinations  upon  which  practice  is  based  and  which  is 
to  be  improved.  The  exercises  in  individual  letters  have 
probably  contributed  something  to  the  pupils'  sense  of 
balance,  of  proportion  of  letters  to  a  line,  of  spacing  between 

35 


MANUAL 

letters,  and  the  like.  But  it  is  not  wise  to  depend  upon  these 
matters  too  implicitly.  Teachers  will  have  to  remind 
pupils  of  what  they  are  supposed  to  have  acquired  in  former 
exercises,  and  apply  their  knowledge  and  skill  to  the  new 
problems. 

There  are  several  points  to  which  attention  needs  to  be 
directed.  First,  one  might  imagine  that  pupils  who  can  do 
Writing  excellently  the  letter  drills,  at  optimum  rate  of. 
words.  speed  and  muscular  control,  and  produce  letters 
points  to  be  of  grace,  simplicity,  ease,  and  unmistakable  legi- 
considered.  bility,  will  naturally  combine  letters  into  mean- 
ingful words  in  the  same  manner  and  with  like  results.  This 
is  not  always  the  case. 

Before  we  can  reasonably  expect  pupils  to  write  spelling, 
compositions,  and  other  general  written  work  well  with  the 
muscular  movement,  we  must  teach  them  how  to  write 
words. 

A  valuable  way  of  effecting  skillful  muscular  control  in 
word  writing  is  at  first  to  select  certain  words  upon  which 
practice  and  study  may  be  concentrated.  These  selected 
words  pupils  should  become  able  to  write  easily,  quickly, 
with  correct  spacing  between  letters  and  with  the  most  eco- 
nomical connections  of  letters. 

Take  the  word  moon,  Advanced  Book,  p.  22.  Practically 
the  same  plan  of  development  that  is  followed  in  teaching  a 
letter  may  be  employed  here.  There  should  be  a  brief  study 
of  the  word,  its  general  appearance,  and  changes  in  be- 
ginnings and  endings  of  letters  to  meet  the  new  situation. 
The  size  of  the  letters  and  the  spaces  between  the  letters 
should  be  considered.  The  spaces  between  letters  should 

36 


HOW  TO  TEACH   WORDS 

be  compared  with  the  width  of  the  letters  themselves,  and 
the  importance  brought  out  clearly.  The  length  and  curva- 
ture of  the  initial  and  final  strokes  or  lines  should  not  be  neg- 
lected in  this  preliminary  study.  Perhaps  a  rapid  review 
drill  on  the  individual  letters  may  be  judged  necessary. 

Second,  the  determining  of  the  optimum  rate  of  speed 
is  indispensable.  Of  course  this  must  agree  with  the  rate 
already  attained  in  making  ovals  and  straight 
lines.  A  simple  method  of  calculating  this  rate  is 
to  take  as  the  approximate  number  of  movements  rate  of 

speed. 

in  making  ovals  200  per  minute.  It  is  easy  to 
discover  that  for  the  word  moon  the  count  would  be  m—3, 
o-2,  o-2,  n-2,  or  nine  in  total.  If  one  count  be  allowed 
for  the  movement  from  one  word  to  the  next  word,  the  total 
count  will  be  10  for  each  word.  By  dividing  the  standard 
rate  of  speed,  200,  by  10,  the  number  of  counts  to  one  word, 
one  has  as  quotient  20,  the  approximate  number  of  times  the 
word  moon  may  be  written  per  minute.  One  should  allow 
at  the  beginning  for  variation  from  this  standard.  Toward 
the  close  of  the  practice,  when  pupils  are  able  to  increase 
speed,  raise  the  standard  possibly  to  22  or  25  words  per 
minute. 

There  is  some  difficulty  usually  experienced  in  counting 
helpfully  for  words.  The  counting  for  letters  is  compara- 
tively simple  because  of  the  repetition,  which  is  decidedly 
rhythmic.  Instead  of  counting  for  the  words,  as  we  do  for 
individual  letter  drills,  name,  with  due  recognition  of  time 
required  for  each  letter,  the  letters  of  the  word  to  be  written. 
The  movement  required  in  writing  moon  may  be  controlled 
by  naming  the  Utters,  m-o-o-n,  prolonging  the  sound  of  m 

37 


MANUAL 

just  enough  to  allow  time  to  make  the  three  over  motions, 
and  prolonging  the  sounds  of  the  o's  and  the  n  slightly  less. 
Dashes  of  different  lengths  would  show  it  about  like  this: 
moon. 

In  naming  the  letters  of  a  word,  the  teacher  must  allow 
for  the  slight  interruption  in  the  movements  required  in 
making  and  connecting  certain  letters.  Some  letters  require 
a  sudden  and  decided  change  in  the  direction  of  the  move- 
ment. Such  a  change  occurs  at  the  top  of  the  letter  o. 
These  interruptions  in  direction  of  movement  are  slight, 
probably  unnoticed  by  the  experienced  writer,  but  they 
should  be  recognized  by  those  just  learning  to  write  with 
the  muscular  movement.  One  who  stops  the  movement 
momentarily  on  each  o  will  have  better  control  and  conse- 
quently will  be  able  to  form  the  letters  better  than  one  who 
rushes  through  the  word. 

Another  plan  is  to  allow  the  pupils  to  swing  along  freely 
and  easily  for  a  minute  without  regulating  the  speed,  to 
determine  how  much  variation  there  is  in  the  number  of 
words  written  by  the  different  pupils. 

If  the  variation  is  marked,  or  if  the  general  rate  of  speed 
is  too  slow,  there  should  be  sufficient  practice  to  bring  them 
all  to  the  approximate  standard  determined  for  the  age 
and  grade  of  pupils. 

There  is  also  the  way  which  has  previously  been  stated 
in  teaching  letters.  The  teacher  may  write  with  the  class 
for  a  few  minutes,  naming  letters  at  proper  rate  and  rhythm. 
It  is  best  to  spell  a  little  slowly,  rather  than  too  rapidly,  at 
first,  and  gradually  increase  the  speed  until  a  good  movement 
is  used.  When  the  class  as  a  whole  has  achieved  the  desired 

38 


HOW  TO  TEACH  WORDS 

speed  rate  in  writing  a  given  word,  the  counting  or  naming 
may  be  stopped  and  attention  be  directed  to  other  features 
of  the  word. 

The  results  of  pupils'  writing  may  at  first  show  many  de- 
fects.    The  more  obvious  will  naturally  be  corrected  by  the 
pupils  as  they  are  brought  to  attentive  considera-  How  to 
tion    and   repetition.     But   there   may   be   more  correct 
serious  faults  that  need  discussion  and  immediate 
correction.     For  example  the  writing  may  appear  as  that  of 
line  (1),  Fig.  12.     The  lines  are  heavy,  tremulous,  or  wavy, 
and    show    signs    of    having    been 
done    hesitantly    and     by    wrong 
movement.     In  this,  speed   is  the 
first  thing  that  is  to   be  secured. 
These    words    have    been    written 
slowly,  with  too  much  attention  to 
the  forms  of  the  letters  and  not 
enough  to  the  muscular  movement 
involved.    Demand  increased  speed 
and  attention  to  muscular  move- 
ment with  only  slight  attention  to  the  form  of  the  letters 
at  the  start.     Have  pupils  perform  movements  with  dry 
pens,  over  copy  if  thought  best,  but  secure  their  cooperation 
in  right  movements  first  of  all. 

The  spacing  between  letters  will  probably  require  atten- 
tion. The  letters  may  be  too  broad  and  the  spaces  between 
them  too  narrow  (Fig.  12,  2).  An  effective  The  spacing 
means  of  correcting  this  error  is  to  have  pupils  of  letters. 
draw  lines  down  the  first  and  last  downward  strokes  of  the  m, 
a  third  line  down  the  left  side  of  the  o,  as  shown  in  copy, 

39 


MANUAL 

Advanced  Book,  p.  22.  The  space  between  the  last  stroke  of 
the  m  and  the  o  should  be  as  wide  as  that  occupied  by  the  m 
itself.  If  this  is  once  corrected,  the  other  defective  spacings 
will  be  easily  remedied  by  the  pupils  with  perhaps  no  further 
instruction  by  the  teacher.  It  is  also  well  to  designate 
the  number  of  words  to  be  written  on  each  line,  proper 
spacing  between  words,  with  right  margin  on  each  side  of 
paper. 

After  spacing  between  letters,  the  characteristics  of  in- 
dividual letters  should  be  considered.  The  m's  and  n's 
The  faults  may  be  sharply  angular  at  the  top,  see  line 
in  letters.  (3)^  pjg  12;  or  the  o's  may  not  be  closed  at  top, 
as  in  line  (4) ,  or  the  final  stroke  may  be  made  with  a  down- 
ward and  not  an  upward  movement,  line  (5) .  These  errors 
need  to  be  corrected  one  by  one,  thoroughly  and  once  for 
all  time.  See  that  pupils  understand  the  criticism.  And 
wherever  possible  have  them  suggest  the  remedy. 

At  this  point  in  the  lesson  the  teacher  should  show  the 

pupils  individual  faults  which  they  should  correct.     A  quiet 

word  of  criticism  here,  and  a  word  of  encouragefhent  there, 

will  bring  the  teacher  into  close  touch  with  each 

The  correc- 
tion of  pupil  and  afford  an  opportunity  to  discover  the 

errors*1  general  faults.  As  soon  as  a  general  fault  is  dis- 
covered the  teacher  should  stop  all  practice,  and 
point  out  on  the  board  the  fault  so  clearly  that  no  doubt 
will  be  left  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  as  to  the  change  that 
must  be  made.  It  is  by  such  patient  and  helpful  work  in 
teaching  pupils  to  achieve  success  in  details  that  the  whole 
result  becomes  possible  and  assured  through  the  pupils' 
own  ideals  and  energetic  application. 

40 


HOW  TO  TEACH  WORDS 

If  pupils  show  signs  of  dropping  behind  the  standard  time, 
resume  counting  or  naming  of  letters  at  once  or  The  failure 
have  it  done  by  one  of  the  pupils.     By  so  doing,  to  keep  time, 
pupils  become  more  firmly  established  in  rhythmic  habits 
of  action  and  achieve  better  results. 

All  of  these  features  to  which  attention  has  been  directed 
are  essential  in  good,  legible,  rapid  writing.  Writing  is  a 
means  of  ready  record  and  of  communication  with  those 
afar.  It  is  made  mechanically  dependable  to  perform  itself 
automatically.  With  such  perfected  mechanism  for  writing, 
one  may  be  almost  wholly  occupied  with  one's  ideas,  only 
from  time  to  time  initiating  the  movements  needed  to  exe- 
cute the  written  words,  sentences,  or  paragraphs  that  may 
convey  our  ideas  to  others.  Others  who  may  have  to  read 
our  writing  will  be  enabled  to  do  so  with  least  attention  to 
the  form  of  letters  or  words,  and  go  straightway  to  the 
ideas  conveyed.  Writing  that  can  be  only  with  difficulty 
read  makes  an  unnecessary  task  for  the  reader. 


41 


CHAPTER  VI 

HOW   TO   TEACH   THE    SENTENCE 

PUPILS  will  have  been  writing  sentences  long  before  it  is 
practicable  to  take  up  for  special  study  and  practice  the  tech- 
nique of  sentence  writing.  In  connecting  sentences,  as  in 
writing  letters  and  words,  the  special  purpose  is  to  improve 
the  ability  to  write  continuous  discourse  so  as  to  comply 
with  all  the  essentials  of  good  writing.  Study  and  practice 
are  at  first  analytic,  emphasizing  now  this  aspect  and  now 
that;  then  synthetic,  incorporating  the  improved  detail 
into  the  writing.  In  the  study  of  the  structure  of  the  sen- 
tence, from  the  point  of  view  of  good  writing,  it  is  in  the 
first  place  necessary  to  determine  what  are  the  characteristics 
of  a  well-written  sentence,  and  then  of  a  well-written  group 
of  sentences.  With  this  step  taken  it  is  necessary  then  to 
improve  by  practice  the  already  developed  skill  of  writing 
sentences  until  it  is  possible  to  produce  such  an  arrangement 
of  words  and  sentences  that  meets  all  standard  requirements 
of  good  writing.  This  implies  the  ability  to  produce  an 
orderly,  easily  legible,  and  pleasing  page  of  hand  writing. 
Such  a  product  is  a  work  of  art  as  well  as  of  utility.  And 
training  in  writing  is  assuredly  incomplete  unless  it  applies 

42 


HOW  TO  TEACH  THE  SENTENCE 

the  acquired  skill  of  fashioning  legible  letters  and  words  to 
the  production  of  a  page  of  sentences  that  exhibits  the  essen- 
tial qualities  of  good  penmanship. 

It  is  common  knowledge  that  although  a  well-written  page 
of  pleasing  appearance  is  most  desirable,  it  is  conspicuously 
rare.  The  reasons  for  this  are  apparent.  They  may  be 
ascribed  for  the  most  part  to  a  neglect  of  the  basal  principles 
involved  in  a  well-written  page.  These  principles  or  condi- 
tions in  their  relation  to  the  sentence  we  may  consider  very 
briefly. 

First  of  all  is  regularity.     This  has  been  found  to  be  fun- 
damental in  all  previous  study  and  practice,  and  it  is  equally 
important  here.     Not  only  must  there  be  regu-  xhechar- 
larity  in  the  form  and  size  of  letters,  the  spacing  acteristks 
between  letters  in  words,  but  there  must  be  regular-  written 
ity  in  the  spacing  between  words  in  sentences  and  sentence 
between  sentences  as  well.     It  is  necessary  to  emphasize 
also  regularity  in  the  initial  and  final  strokes  of  letters  or 
words,   since  irregularity   in   these  respects   impairs   some- 
times seriously  legibility  and    the   general    appearance   of 
the  page. 

The  second  characteristic  is  that  the  lines  of  writing  must 
be  smooth,  even,  firm,  and  clear.  If  they  are  broken,  wavy, 
or  tremulous,  now  heavy  and  now  light,  or  in  general  devoid 
of  that  smoothness  and  sharp  yet  pleasing  effect  that  muscu- 
lar technique  gives,  they  cannot  be  considered  satisfactory 
as  regards  either  their  utility  or  beauty.  It  seems  necessary 
to  repeat  that  the  character  of  the  lines  reveals  definitely 
the  method  of  writing.  The  muscular  movement  produces 
fluent,  continuous,  clear,  and  graceful  lines  ;  but  lines  which 

43 


MANUAL 

are  labored,  broken,  and  tremulous  point  almost  certainly 
to  a  dominant  finger  movement  in  writing.  This  is  most 
sharply  presented  in  the  written  page,  which  depends 
in  large  measure  for  its  excellence  upon  the  character 
of  the  lines. 

A  third  characteristic,  closely  correlated  with  the  first 
and  the  second,  and  yet  distinct  enough  to  require  special 
mention,  is  the  idea  of  form.  Form  lies  at  the  very  root  of 
successful  handwriting.  The  writing  mechanism  may  be 
trained  to  the  highest  degree  of  efficiency,  but  it  must  be 
guided  at  every  stage  by  the  idea  of  the  form.  The  form 
of  the  letters,  of  their  arrangement  into  words,  of  the  ar- 
rangement of  words  in  sentences,  and  of  the  sentences  on 
the  page  is  obviously  indispensable.  While  a  perfectly 
satisfactory  form  of  the  written  page  is  only  slowly  devel- 
oped, it  may  be  accelerated  by  the  study  of  good  models 
arid  by  progressive  exercises  that  begin  with  the  repetition 
of  one  sentence  thoroughly  mastered  to  the  combination  of 
several  sentences  that  present  somewhat  more  of  the  varie- 
ties of  actual  written  composition. 

For  the  reasons  we  have  above  offered,  it  is  recommended 
that  pupils  begin  with  the  single  sentence  as  given  in  the 
HOW  to  Advanced  Book,  p.  65.  A  rapid  review  of  the 
master  the  principles  brought  out  in  the  study  and  practice 
of  writing  words  will  be  advantageous.  They 
should  be  led  to  recognize  the  essentials  that  have  been  cited 
in  the  previous  pages,  especially  in  connection  with  the  sen- 
tence. 

In  the  practice  work  pupils  will  usually  require  more  than 
one  lesson  to  acquire  the  ability  to  write  a  sentence  properly. 

44 


HOW  TO  TEACH  THE  SENTENCE 

It  is  wise  to  make  haste  slowly,  remembering  that  old  habits 
may  have  to  be  reformed,  a  process  that  always  proceeds  more 
slowly  than  the  formation  of  new  habits.  If  the  writing 
period  were  twenty  minutes,  two  or  three  such  periods  would 
be  necessary  to  develop  the  desired  result.  If  it  is  only 
fifteen  minutes,  three  or  four  such  periods  may  well  be 
given  to  the  initial  exercise. 

If  the  class  is  to  begin  the  practice  of  the  sentence  given  in 
the  Advanced  Book,  p.  65,   "Combine  legibility,  ease,  and 
speed,"  somewhat  the  following  order  might  be 
observed.     Have  a  brief  practice  of  the  capital  C,  procedure, 
then  m  and  n,  and  if  it  seems  needed,  of  b.     Then  (1)  The  •« 

sentence. 

have  the  class  write  the  word  Combine,  which  may 
indeed  fill  up  the  period.  At  the  next  writing  period  it  may 
be  well  to  review  all  the  upper  loop  letters  appearing  in  the 
sentence,  and  the  lower  loop  letters,  and  then  practise  the 
word  legibility.  A  third  lesson  may  comprise  exercises  of 
similar  character  with  the  remaining  words,  ease,  and  speed. 
At  the  next  period  the  complete  sentence  will  provide  ample 
material  for  practice.  And  as  already  suggested  it  may  be 
necessary  to  devote  more  than  one  period  to  secure  a  satis- 
factory product. 

A  more  advanced  step  is  provided  in  the  sentence  exercises 
in  Advanced  Book,  pp.  87  to  93.  In  these  appear  certain 
important  features  not  possible  in  the  mere  repeti-  (2)  sen- 
tion  of  a  sentence  regardless  of  the  page  appear-  tenceorouP8- 
ance.  Indentation  of  paragraphs,  margin  on  right  and 
left  sides  of  page,  together  with  the  qualities  already  pointed 
out,  require  careful  study  and  much  practice  to  insure  auto- 
matic and  correct  observance.  After  pupils  have  become 

45 


MANUAL 

sufficiently  proficient  in  writing  the  copies  given  in  the  text, 
they  may,  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher,  apply  what  they 
have  learned  to  longer  compositions,  personal  letters,  and  to 
the  simpler  letters  of  business  correspondence.  The  more 
usual  business  forms,  as  those  in  Advanced  Book,  pp.  92-93 
or  those  found  in  the  arithmetic  textbooks,  may  be  taken  as 
copy. 


46 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE   FIRST   LESSON 

WHEN  the  teacher  meets  the  class  for  the  first  writing 
lesson  she  should  begin  with  a  short  talk  about  the  work 
to  be  done.  No  attempt  should  be  made  to  discuss  the  sub- 
ject exhaustively ;  many  things  will  necessarily  be  taken  up 
and  explained  from  day  to  day ;  but  the  phases  of  the  work 
with  which  the  pupils  must  deal  at  once  should  be  made 
very  clear. 

In  this  talk  correct  posture  should  be  explained  and  the 
reason  should  be  given.  Muscular  movement,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  finger  movement,  should  be  defined. 

The  class  should  then  be  taught  the  first  easy  steps  in 
muscular   movement.     Have   the   pupils   drop   both   arms 
on  the  desk  with  the  points  of  the  elbows  at  the  The  g^ 
edge  of  the  desk,  and  the  hands  touching  each  easy  steps 

in  muscular 

other  on  the  desk,  directly  in  front  of  the  center  movement 


of  the  body.     Then  have  them  open  the   right 
hands   and  place  the  palms  flat  on   the  desks,  dse  to  secure 
The   elbows   of   the   right   arms   will   then   form  flex'llnlltv- 
square    turns,    or    right    angles,    as    they    should    when 

47 


MANUAL 

writing ;  and  the  thick  muscular  cushions  will  be  on  the 
under  side  of  the  arms.  Then  have  the  pupils  raise  their 
right  hands  just  a  little  off  the  desks,  keeping  the  fingers 
extended,  and  the  hands  will  be  as  in  Fig.  13.  The  ad- 
vantage of  practising  with  the  fingers  extended  in  this 
manner  is  that  in  this  position  the  muscles  are  always  re- 
/ON  D  .•  laxed.  In  the  next  step  have  the  children  move 

(2)  Practice 

of  their  hands  forward  and  backward  as  far  as  the 

muscles   will  stretch,   in  the  direction  in  which 
the  fingers  point. 


Fig.  13 

In  producing  this  exercise  the  pupils  are  to  be  guided  in 
a  study  of  the  movement.  Ask  questions  as  follows : 
Where  are  the  muscles  that  move  the  hands  forward  and 
backward  located?  They  are,  as  you  know,  above  the 
elbow  and  around  the  shoulder.  Where  is  the  muscle  on 
which  the  arm  moves  ?  It  is  on  the  under  side  of  the  arm 
in  front  of  the  elbow.  Should  this  muscle  move  backward 
and  forward  at  the  point  on  which  it  rests  on  the  desk? 

48 


THE  FIRST  LESSON 

Of  course  it  should  not.  Should  the  muscle  stretch  forward 
and  backward  when  the  hand  moves  as  directed? 

Pupils  may  readily  be  led  to  observe  and  to  feel  the 
stretching  of  this  muscle  as  the  hand  moves  forward  and 
backward.  Keep  the  pupils  practising  the  movement  con- 
stantly during  the  discussion  just  outlined. 

Note,  however,  that  the  movements  of  the  different  pupils 
vary  considerably,  some  rapid  and  some  slow.  These 
movements  must  be  regulated  by  the  teacher  through 
rhythmic  counting. 


Fig.  14 

As  soon  as  this  step  is  mastered  the  fingers  may  be  turned 
under  so  that  the  nails  of  the  third  and  fourth  fingers  will 
touch  the  paper  as  shown  in  Fig.  14.     This  and 
the  other  figures  illustrating  the  position  of  the  ^  J^. 
arm  and  hand  show  two  points  of  contact  —  the  ing  the  finger 
large  muscle  which  stretches,  and  the  finger  nails 
which  glide.     The  wrist  should  not  touch  the  paper 
at  any  time  in  writing. 

a  49 


n<  i  II  on  the 


MANUAL 


Fig.  15 

Have    pupils    practise    this    movement    in    the   position 
shown  in  Fig.  15  to  a  regular  count  until  all  can  do 
tice  in  move-  it  at  the  rate  of  about  200  a  minute. 
ment  with          When  the  movement  is  understood,  penholding 

counting. 

as  explained  in  Figs.  6  and  7,  Advanced  Book  and 
Elementary  Book,  should  be  taken  up.  The  pupils  should 
practise  (Fig.  16)  holding  the  penholders  correctly  and  run- 


THE  FIRST  LESSON 

ning  them  with  dry  pens,  forward  and  backward  in  regular 
time  controlled  by  counting. 

The  time  required  to  teach  the  first  easy  steps  will  de- 
pend upon  the  ability  of  the  class.     It  may  be 
made  perfectly  clear  in  one  writing  period,  or  it  donate™1™ 
may  require  two  or  more  periods.     It  is  a  matter  amount  of 
of  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.     In  teach-  g™en  ^  the 
ing  writing,  as  in  teaching  any  subject,  one  step  preliminary 
must  be  taught  before  advancing  to  the  next. 
And  the  teacher  has  not  taught  efficiently  until  the  pupils 
have  learned. 


THE  STRAIGHT  LINE  MOVEMENT  DRILL 

Pupils    are    supposed    to    have    mastered    the    following 
steps : 

(1)  The  movement  of  the  arm  on  the  muscular  cushion  on  the  under 

side  of  the  forearm. 

(2)  This  movement  to  cover  two  full  spaces  on  the  practice  paper. 

(3)  The  ability  to  make  the  hand  glide  smoothly  on  the  nails. 

(4)  The  correct  holding  of  the  penholder. 

The  next  step  is  the  practice  of  the  straight  line  exercise 
as  shown,  Elementary  Book,  p.  12,  and  Advanced  Book,  p.  13. 

Some  benefit  will  be  derived  if  pupils  run  the  dry  pens 
up   and   down   over  the  copy,   properly  placed.  General 
This  will  give  them  the  correct  muscular  sense  di™^118 
of    the    direction    and    movement    before    attempting   the 
exercise. 

The  paper  is  to  be  placed  so  that  the  pen  will  swing  along 
the  blue  line  from  left  to  right.     Then  the  first  line  should 

51 


MANUAL 

be  divided  into  quarters  by  making  check  (vO  marks,  as 
directed,  Elementary  Book,  p.  12,  Advanced  Book,  p.  13. 

The  pupils  may  then  dip  the  pens  into  the  ink,  take  posi- 
tion, and  begin  running  the  pens  forward  and  backward 
without  touching  the  paper  until  the  teacher  begins 
directions,      counting.     Have  the  first  count  as  the  signal  to 

(1)  Count-     touch  the  paper  while  the  pens  are  in  motion.     The 

counting  by  the  teacher  should  be  as  follows: 
1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10— 1-2-3-1^-5-6-7 -8-9-20,  etc.  up  to 
100,  in  a  half  minute.  The  pen  should  run  forward  and 
backward  on  one  count. 

At  first,  the  pupils  will  be  unable  to  make  100  strokes 
within  one  quarter  of  the  line.  Instruct  each  pupil  to 

(2)  The        follow  the  count  until  a  check  mark  is  reached,  then 

closeness 

of  lines.  to  stop  and  record  the  number  of  strokes  made. 
For  instance,  if  the  count  were  65  just  as  the  check  mark 
was  reached,  the  pupil  should  stop,  write  65  at  the  point, 
then  wait  until  the  100  count  is  finished. 

Let  the  aim  be  to  increase  the  number  of  strokes  in  each 
quarter-space  by  making  the  lines  closer  and  closer,  until 
100  strokes  are  easily  made.  The  lines  must  always  run 
forward  and  backward  along  the  line  of  vision,  and  to  this 
the  teacher  must  give  careful  attention.  When  pupils  can 
make  100  strokes  or  lines  on  a  quarter-space  with  the  right 
movement  and  at  the  standard  rate  of  speed,  they  will  have 
the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that  they  are  getting  control 
of  the  pen,  and  can  make  it  do  something  which  was  before 
not  practicable. 

Usually  when  pupils  gain  sufficient  control  to  make  very 
close  lines,  they  may  make  the  exercise  too  black.  This  is 

52 


THE  FIRST  LESSON 

usually  due  to  too  heavy  pressure  on  the  pen.  They 
may  cultivate  lighter  lines  by  making  the  pens  run  over 
the  paper  just  as  lightly  and  delicately  as  possible.  (3)  Tkg 
This  the  pupils  can  attain  by  holding  the  pen-  lightness  of 
holders  as  loosely  as  possible.  Gripping  the  pen-  h 
holders  is  a  most  common  and  harmful  fault.  When  the 
penholders  are  gripped  tightly,  the  result  is  that  the  muscles 
extending  back  through  the  wrist  and  arm  are  stretched 
tense  and  taut  like  the  strings  on  a  violin,  which  utterly 
prevents  the  freedom  and  fluent  ease  of  movement  indis- 
pensable to  good  writing.  This  movement  is  also  most 
effective  in  correcting  wrong  habits  of  writing.  The  full, 
free  swing  which  the  hand  and  arm  acquire  by  this  exercise 
and  which  is  gradually  brought  within  the  size  desired 
develops  control,  skill,  and  the  necessary  confidence  in 
ability  to  advance  to  more  difficult  tasks. 

The  pupils  should  now  be  instructed  to  shift  their  papers 
to  the  left  just  about  the  same  distance  as  that  over  which 
they  have  written.  This  should  be  done  with  the  (4)  Moving 
left  hand,  and  should  allow  the  right  hand  to  retain  the  paper- 
the  writing  position  without  change.  Have  the  pupils 
begin  swinging  their  pens  in  the  necessary  way  preparatory 
to  the  beginning  of  the  count  and  the  making  of  the  lines  in 
the  next  quarter-space. 

The  two-space  straight  line  should  gradually  be  reduced 
until  it  conforms  to  the  size  of  letters  in  which  it  is 


The   one-space  exercise,   see   Elementary  Book,  from  the 
p.'  14,  Advanced  Book,  p.  15,  may  be  taken  as  a 
second  step  in  the  preliminary  drills. 

53 


MANUAL 

Practice  of  the  straight  line  should  be  continued  until 
the  pupils  are  masters  of  these  items : 

(1)  Holding  correctly  the  penholder,  without  gripping  or  pressing 

too  heavily  upon  it. 

(2)  Skill  and  standard  speed  in  moving  pen  forward  and  backward 

in  the  right  direction,  and 

(3)  Making  as  nearly  as  possible  just  one  hundred  strokes  in  each 

quarter  space. 

This  drill  needs  to  be  reviewed  frequently  after  these 
things  are  mastered,  and  especially  in  preparatory  exercises 
to  letters  of  which  the  straight  line  is  an  essential  part. 

THE  OVAL  MOVEMENT  DRILL 

No  other  exercise  has  served  as  well  to  develop  power, 
freedom,  control,  quality  of  line,  and  confidence  as  the  com- 
pact oval.  See  Elementary  Book,  p.  14,  Advanced 
pact  oval  Book,  p.  15.  It  is  simple  in  execution,  for  it  is 
merely  the  repetition  of  a  single  rotary  motion. 
The  movement  required  to  produce  it  soon  becomes  auto- 
matic. As  soon  as  the  movement  becomes  automatic,  or 
nearly  so,  the  pupils'  attention  can  be  directed  to  details 
that  are  important  in  muscular  movement  writing.  They 
may  successively  notice  the  form  and  slant  of  the  ovals, 
observe  the  arm,  and  see  that  it  moves  freely  on  the  muscular 
cushion.  They  may  observe  position  of  the  third  and 
fourth  fingers,  which  should  be  turned  under  the  hand  and 
gliding  smoothly  and  fluently  on  the  paper.  The  wrist, 
they  may  notice,  is  raised  just  a  little  above  the  paper. 
The  teacher  may  lead  them  to  consider  how  they  hold  the 

54 


THE  FIRST  LESSON 

penholder,  whether  pinching  or  holding  it  loosely,  between 
the  thumb  and  the  first  and  second  fingers.  They  may  also 
observe  the  direction  in  which  the  penholder  is  pointing, 
and  see  that  it  points  back  over  the  arm,  between  the  elbow 
and  shoulder. 

The  drill  to  be  practised  in  preparation  for  the  compact 
oval  drill  is  that  presented  in  Elementary  Book,  p.  13,  No.  1, 
and  Advanced  Book,  p.  14,  No.  1.     In  beginning 
this,  the  pupils  place  the  copy  of  the  book  parallel  teach  the 
with  the  blue  lines  on  the  practice   paper,    then  co^PjCj!i 
with  dry  pens  swing  over  the  copy  a  few  times  to  d)  Prepar- 
see  how  it  feels  to  make  the  movements  used  in  the  atory  wc 
ovals.     Make  the  straight-line  movements  first,  and   then 
swing  round  and  round  the  ends  of  the  straight  lines.     After 
a  few  trials  with  the  dry  pen,  they  may,  with  ink,  make  on 
the  practice  paper  the  straight  line  and  oval  ten  times  on 
a  line.     The  straight  lines  are  first  made  to  the  count  of 
eight;    with  pens  raised  the  least  bit  from  the  paper,  two 
ovals  are  swung  around  the  straight  lines  to  the  count  of 
1-2  before  touching  the  paper  and  making  the  eight  ovals 
to  the  3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10  count. 

The  two  oval  swings  taken  before  touching  the  paper 
give  pupils  a  moment  to  think  of  the  oval  form  before  mak- 
ing it  on  the  paper  and  to  get  the  hand  and  the  arm  moving 
fluently  in  the  necessary  fashion.  A  very  good  way  to 
regulate  the  time  for  a  class  is  to  say,  ''Straight 
1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8,  Round  1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10"  for  the 
retraced  ovals.  By  saying  straight  before  counting  for  the 
straight  lines  and  round  before  counting  for  the  ovals,  the 
pupils  are  given  a  command  of  preparation  for  the  required 

55 


MANUAL 

movement  and  also  time  to  change  from  one  movement  to  the 
next.  If  these  commands  are  given  in  the  right  tone  and 
with  the  proper  emphasis  while  counting,  all  the  pupils 
will  be  kept  together  making  the  straight  lines  or  the  ovals 
in  simultaneous  movement. 

If  the  results  of  this  practice  be  too  narrow,  as  are  shown 
in  Fig.  17,  (1),  then  effort  must  be  made  to  secure  a  more 

(2)  The        circular  movement.     It  may  be  that  the  slant  of 
correction       the  ovals   (2)   is  not  that  of  the  straight  lines. 

This  is  probably  due  to  the  neglect  of  pupils  to 
swing  around  the  ends  of  the  straight  lines.  If  the  lines 

are  too  far  apart  (3), 
they  show  most  plainly 
very  poor  control  and 
the  need  of  more  prac- 
tice in  tracing  with  dry 
pens  the  copy  of  straight 

and  oval  lines.  Strive  always  to  have  pupils  make  light, 
smooth,  but  firm  lines,  close  together,  and  the  oval  lines 
just  barely  touching  one  another.  (See  copy,  Elementary 
Book,  p.  13,  Advanced  Book,  p.  14.) 

When  the  right  slant  of  the  ovals  is  secured  by  the  straight- 
line-oval  drill,  the  compact  oval  two  spaces  high  (Drill  2, 
p.  14,  Advanced  Book)  should  be  practised.     The 

(3)  Prac-        \  , 

ticethe  shape  of  an  oval  or  ellipse  should  be  clearly 
correct  visualized  as  each  circular  movement  is  made. 

form. 

The  lines  are  to  be  made  close  enough  together  to 
allow  400  ovals  to  a  seven-inch  line.  After  each  100  counts, 
the  pupils  should  stop,  and  shift  the  paper  about  one  and  a 
half  inches  toward  the  left  as  previously  suggested. 

56 


THE  FIRST  LESSON 

The  quality  of  line  developed  by  the  straight-line  and  the 
oval  exercises,  and  the  optimum  rate  of  speed  which  is 
gained  in  the  practice,  serve  as  the  basis  for  all  writing. 
The  standard  rate  of  speed  for  straight-line  and  oval  practice 
is  approximately  200  in  one  minute  - — 100  to  each  quarter 
line,  in  one  half  minute. 

Pupils  should  become  equally  skillful  in  the  direct  and 
reverse  oval  drills  one  space  high,  as  shown  in  Drill  No.  2, 
p.  15,  Advanced  Book,  and  p.  14,  Elementary  Book. 

Important  points  to  emphasize  during  practice  are  (1)  cor- 
rect posture,  (2)  relaxed  muscles,  (3)  correct  slant,  or  direc- 
tion, (4)  roundness,  or  oval  forms,  (5)  lightness  of  touch, 
and  (6)  compactness. 


57 


CHAPTER  VIII 

HOW   TO   TEACH   LETTERS 

IT  is  generally  agreed  among  teachers  of  muscular  move- 
ment writing  that  the  capital  0,  which  is  closely  related  in 
How  to  form  to  the  oval  exercises,  is  the  best  letter  to 
teach  the  begin  in  the  first  specific  application  of  movement 

(1)  study      to  the  making  of  letters.     Questions  such  as  the 
the  letter.       following  suggest  the  chief  characteristics  of  the 
capital :  What  general  movement  is  used  in  making  the  0  ? 
How  large  is  the  0  ?     Is  it  made  with  a  heavy  or  a  light 
line  ?     In  what  direction  should  the  pen  be  moving  when  it 
touches  the  paper?     In  what  direction  should  the  pen  be 
moving  when  lifted  from  the  paper  ? 

It  has  been  proven  by  experiments  that  pupils  who  are 
skillful  in  the  oval  exercises  will  frequently  revert  to  the 

(2)  Base  the  finger  movement  in  the  attempt  to  make  a  letter. 
practice  on     fo  prevent  this  tendency,  associate  by  preparatory 
movement       practice   the   retraced   oval   which   embodies   the 
exercise.         movement  required  for  making  the  capital  0  with 
the  letter  itself.     Advanced  Book,  p.   16.     The  purpose  of 
this  is  obviously  to  employ  the  same  free  swing  used  in  the 
retraced  oval  in  making  the  capital  0. 

The  pupils  should  be  led  to  observe  that  the  loop  at  the 
top  of  the  retraced  oval  is  like  that  of  the  0,  and  that  the 

58 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 

final  stroke  is  made  with  an  upward  motion.     The  size  of 

the  letter  is  a  full  space  between  two  blue  lines. 

Count  six,  rather  quickly,  for  the  retraced  oval,  careful  at- 

and  without  hesitating  say,  "  swing  1,  swing  2,  swing  ienhon  <0 

3"     This  encourages  continuation  of  the  move- 

ment of  the  retraced  oval  in  writing  the  capital  0  at  least 

three  times. 

Repeat  the  retraced  oval  and  three  O's  on  each  quarter 
line.  The  paper  should  be  moved  to  the  left  as  formerly. 
While  the  aim  is  to  form  the  letters  as  nearly  like  those  in 
the  copy  as  possible,  it  is  primarily  to  secure  and  establish 
as  a  habit  a  movement  that  is  skilled  or  controlled,  and  also 
fluent  and  easy. 

Further  suggestions  for  teaching  the  capital  0  are  given 
under  How  to  Teach  Capital  Letters,  p.  24. 

The  small  o  is  a  very  much  reduced  form  of  the  capital  0. 
The  final  loop  in  the  capital  0  becomes  a  dot,  or 
point  in  the  small  o.     It  is  necessary  to  stop  at  teaci,  the 


the   top   of  each,  in  order  to  close  it  and  swing 

drill. 

toward  the  next  letter  properly.  d>  pre. 

The  special  purpose  in  this  practice  is  to  develop  lim^ar^ 
confidence  and  control  in  moving  the  hand  and 
pen  across  the  page.     See  Elementary  Book,  p.  17,  Advanced 
Book,  p.  18.     The  letters  in  this  exercise  are  separated  a 
little  more  than  they  are  in  regular  writing,  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  practice  in  passing  from  one  letter  to  another. 

There  are  two  movements  in  this  drill,  one  in  forming  the 
small  oval  and  one  in  swinging  to  the  succeeding  letter. 
The  count  is  -1-2  for  each  o. 

Faults  may  best  be  corrected  by  making  the  child  critical 

59 


MANUAL 

of  his  own  work.  Questions  to  draw  the  attention  of  chil- 
dren to  the  points  of  perfection  in  the  model  may  be  asked 
to  encourage  the  child  in  intelligent  self-direction  of  his 
work.  Such  questions  as  the  following  are  suggested : 
What  is  the  form  of  an  o  ?  Is  the  o  open  or  closed  at  the 
top?  What  letter  will  the  o  resemble  if  the  top  is  not 
closed  ?  Is  the  line  connecting  one  o  with  the  following 
letter  straight  or  curved  ?  How  many  o's  are  there  in  each 
group?  How  many  groups  on  one  line?  Are  the  lines 
tremulous  or  smooth  ?  What  causes  tremulous  lines  ? 

In  advanced  classes  make  four  groups  of  five  o's  each  on 
a  line.     The  speed  at  first  should  be  four  lines  or  80  letters 

(2)  Prac-      in  one  minute.     This  may  be  increased  gradually 
vanc&d          until  five  lines  a  minute  can  be  made,  a  rate  which 
classes.         corresponds  closely  to  the  speed  gained  in  prac- 
tising the  general  movement  exercises.    The  rate  of  speed  may 
be  calculated  as  follows.     The  count  for  one  o  is  1-2  and  for 
a  group  of  five  o's  ten.     Add  to  this  two  counts,  or  the  time 
of  one  letter,  to  allow  for  passing  from  the  final  stroke  of 
one  group  to  the  beginning  of  the  next  group,  which  gives  12. 
Two  hundred,  the  standard  rate  of  movement  per  minute, 
divided  by  12,  gives  the  approximate  number  of  groups  to 
be  made  in  one  minute.     This  rate  of  speed  will  insure 
smooth  lines  and  correct  the  fault  shown  in  Fig.  18  (1). 

If  pupils  do  not  allow  wide  enough  space  between  letters 
to  make  the  twenty  letters  extend  across  the  page,  Fig.  18  (2), 

(3)  The        ^ey  may  ke  instructed  to  give  a  longer  swing 
correction      between   them.     Attention   may   be   directed   to 

this  by  counting  thus :   1  swing,  2  swing,  3  swing, 
4  swing,  5  swing.     If  the  o's  are  too  large,  Fig.  18  (3),  the 

60 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 


phrase  small  o,  small  o,  small  o,  etc.,  will  direct  attention  to 
the  correction  of  this  fault.  If  they  are  too  narrow,  Fig.  18 
(4),  as  is  frequently  the  case,  use  the  phrase  round  o,  round  o, 
round  o.  The  aim  should  be  to  make  the  o's  small,  round, 
closed,  and  evenly  spaced  with  a  free,  easy  movement. 

Questions  like  the  following  seldom  fail  to  arouse  interest 
in  the  work:  How  many  are  failing  to  close  the  o's  at  the 
top?  See  (5),  Fig.  18.  By  watching  closely,  can  you  make 
three  lines  of  o's  and  not  leave 
one  open  at  the  top  ? 

Children  are  usually  optimistic 
and  feel  certain  they  can  do  so. 
When  the  three  lines  are  made  at 
the  standard  rate  of  speed,  ascer- 
tain whether  they  all  succeeded 
in  closing  every  o.  Perhaps  not 
more  than  three  or  four  have  suc- 
ceeded. This  will  arouse  a  desire 
to  try  it  again  and  again.  It  becomes  a  race  —  a  contest,  until 
many  or  all  can  close  every  o.  There  is  scarcely  a  more  inter- 
esting way  than  this  to  correct  any  fault ;  and  the  pupils 
are  not  likely  soon  to  forget  a  lesson  learned  in  this  manner. 

In  the  elementary  grades  four  groups  of  4  o's  each  are 
suggested  for  one  line.     See  p.  17,  Elementary  Book. 

The  two  fundamental  movements  used  in  all  letter  forma- 
tions  are  the   direct  and  reverse   oval   and  the  HOW  to 
straight-line  movements.    Application  of  the  direct 
oval  movement  was  made  in  the  o,  both  capital  and.y. 
and  small.     We  have  now  to  apply  the  straight-  £ 
line  movement  to  M  and  N,  capital  and  small.      work- 

61 


Fig.  18 


MANUAL 


Fig.  19 


As  a  preparation  to  make  the  capitals  M  and  N,  the  straight- 
line  and  reverse  oval  drills  (pp.  13  and  15,  Advanced  Book) 
and  the  specific  drills  (p.  19,  Advanced  Book)  should  be 
practised.  The  directions  given  on  p.  19,  Advanced  Book, 
for  the  specific  drills  are  to  be  followed.  All  downward 
strokes  should  be  as  light  as  the  upward  strokes.  This 
will  keep  pupils  from  making  the  pens  scrape  or  scratch 
the  paper  on  the  downward  stroke.  If  any  of  the  pupils 
make  the  down  strokes  in  Drill  No.  3,  p.  19,  Advanced 

Book,    too    short,    as 

shown  in  Fig.  19, 
(1),  a  corrective  exer- 
cise is  to  practise 
them  a  full  space 
high,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  19,  (2). 

Study  the  capital  M  on  p.  20,  Advanced  Book,  or  p.  19, 
Elementary  Book.  Observe  that  the  initial  stroke  com- 

(2)  study      prises  a  small  loop  and  a  broad  turn  which  becomes 
of  the  model.  a  straight  line  as  it  approaches  the  base  line ;  that 
there  are  three  overturns  in  the  top  of  the  letter ;   that  the 
first  overturn  is  broader  than  the  other  two ;    and  that  the 
three  downward  strokes  have  the  same  slant. 

A  common  fault  in  making  these  letters  is  to  make  angles 
at  the  top  as  in  Fig.  19,  (3).  To  correct  this  fault  the  over 

(3)  The         motion  must  be  practised  and  round  form  securely 
correction       established.     Another    fault    may    appear.     The 

downward  strokes  may  be  too  widely  separated  (4) 
which  consequently  makes  the  M's  and  N's  too  broad.  A 
corrective  exercise  is  to  have  pupils  make  the  complete 

62 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 

exercise  six  times  on  a  line,  as  in  the  copy.  But,  until 
pupils  can  make  the  specific  drill  overturns  with  regularity, 
it  may  be  advisable  to  reduce  the  number  to  five  or  even 
four  on  a  line. 

This  specific  drill  should  have  the  same  rate  of  speed  as 
in  the  general  movement  drills;  i.e.  eighteen  or  twenty 
times  in  one  minute.  The  rate  of  speed  is  estimated  as  in 
former  exercises  by  dividing  200,  the  number  of  movements 
a  minute  in  a  general  drill,  by  10,  the  number  of  movements 
required  for  the  specific  drill.  ^A  small  allowance  is  to  be 
made  for  the  time  needed  in  passing  from  one  group  to 
another. 

The  small  initial  loop  and  the  three  overturns  at  the  top 
of  capital  M  should  be  studied  carefully.  Consider  also  the 
curvature  of  the  final  stroke,  which  is  finished  by  a  down- 
ward stroke  until  the  letter  is  well  and  easily  made  with 
fluent  muscular  movement.  See  Elementary  Book,  p.  19, 
and  Advanced  Book,  p.  20. 

The  first  overturn  should  be  broader  than  either  of  the 
others.  The  space  between  the  straight  lines  of  the  M 
should  be  equal  in  width.  The  down  strokes  should  be  as 
light  as  the  upward  strokes.  There  are  no  angles  at  the 
tops  of  the  M  and  N.  Aim  to  make  the  last  part  of  the 
M  or  N  almost  as  high  as  the  first  part. 

One  may  ask  questions  as  follows  :  How  tall  is  the  capital 
J/  ?  How  many  overturns  are  made  in  the  top  of  the 
letter?  Have  the  turns  all  the  same  width?  Are  all  the 
turns  the  same  in  height?  In  what  direction  should 
the  pen  be  moving  when  it  is  lifted  from  the  paper?  Is 
the  final  stroke  straight  or  curved  ? 

63 


MANUAL 

It  is  advisable  to  allow  a  full  stop  at  the  base  line  on  the 
first  downward  stroke,  until  the  form  of  the  M  is  practically 
perfect.  Then  the  stop  may  be  cut  shorter  until  it  is 
scarcely  noticeable.  The  count  is  1  stop,  3-4,  or  1-2,  3-4, 
or  1-2,  3  swing. 

In  Fig.  20,  (1),  the  first  turn  at  the  top  is  too  narrow  and 

(4)  mua       *ke  letter  as  a  whole  is  too  broad ;  in  (2)  the  initial 

tration  of       stroke  is  too  high  and  the  remainder  of  the  letter 

is  too  low ;  in  (3)  there  are  angles  at  the  top  and 

the  last  stroke  is  too  high. 

The  number  of  M's  to  be  made  in  a  minute  is  determined 

as  already  explained.  The 
200  basis  is  to  be  divided 
by  5  (4  counts  for  M  and 
1  for  swing  to  next  letter) 
which  gives  as  quotient  40, 

or  the  number  of  M 's  to  be  made  in  a  minute.  Of  N's  5  to 
10  more  can  be  made  as  the  simple  computation  will 
show.  More  detailed  treatment  of  the  capitals  M  and 
N  is  given  pp.  67  and  68,  Advanced  Book. 

The  small  m  and  n  should  be  studied,  practised,  and  re- 
viewed frequently  until  they  can  be  made  skillfully.  Per- 
Howto  haps  no  other  letters  serve  to  develop  the  highly 
ImaUm*  specialized  movement  so  well  as  do  these  letters, 
and  n.  The  straight-line  or  push-and-pull  movement 
predominates  in  the  small  m  and  n,  as  it  does  in 


the  corresponding  capitals.  Therefore  the  straight- 
line  drill  one  space  high  should  be  practised  as  a  preliminary. 
See  Drill  No.  i,  p.  15,  Advanced  Book.  The  reverse  oval  drill 
may  also  refresh  the  muscular  memory  of  the  over  motion. 

64 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 

Frequently  pupils  who  can  apply  the  muscular  move- 
ment to  the  larger  drills  will  unintentionally  resort  to  finger 
movement  in  reducing  the  length  of  the  push-and-pull 
movement  to  the  size  of  the  small  m.  This  tendency  may 
be  avoided  by  first  practising  the  over  motion  as  in  a 
rather  large  m,  —  about  half  the  height  between  two  ruled 
lines.  See  Drill  No.  i,  p.  21,  Advanced  Book.  When  pupils 
can  make  the  form  of  this  intermediate  size  with  free  mus- 
cular movement,  they  may  assume  the  practice  of  the 
smaller  form. 

When  the  form  is  being  reduced  in  height  it  should  also 
be  made  more  compact.  The  width  of  an  m  should  be 
approximately  twice  the  height.  For  spacing  between 
letters  see  Advanced  Book,  p.  21,  Drill  3.  The  downward 
lines  should  be  close  enough  together  to  allow  five  groups 
of  ten  downward  strokes  each  on  a  line. 

As  in  former  exercises  on  capitals  M  and  N,  care  should 
be  exercised  to  avoid  angular  tops,  and  to  make  the  final 
stroke  just  as  it  is  in  the  copy.  The  over-under  motion  at 
the  end  of  the  letters  or  forms  is  the  difficult  part  to  perfect. 
This  exercise,  comprising  in  all  ten  movements,  should  be 
executed  twenty  times  a  minute. 

Analysis   shows  that  small  m  is   made  by  three  over- 
motions.     The  count  for  an  m  is  therefore  1-2-3;   and  for 
a  group  of  four  m's  the  count  is  1-2-3,  1-2-3,        The 
1-2-3,  1-2-3.     In  the  early  attempts  to  write  m's  correction 
at  full  standard  speed  (52  or  more  per  minute),  °J 
pupils  may  make  such  mistakes  as  the  following :   The  m's 
may,  Fig.  21,  (1),  be  too  broad,  with  the  space  between  the 
letters  too  narrow.     The  space  is  shown  in  copy  to  be 

F  65 


MANUAL 

exactly  as  wide  as  is  an  m.  Instead  of  counting  1-2-3,  say 
"glide  2-3,  glide  2-3,  glide  2-3,  glide  2-3"  for  a  group  of 
four  ra's.  This  method  of  counting  may  often  be  used  to 
advantage. 

In  seeking  to  space  better  between  the  letters,  the  tend- 
ency may  be  encouraged  to  form  sharply  angular  tops  in 
the  latter  part  of  each  group  as  Fig.  21,  (2).  And  one  needs 
constantly  to  recognize  that  in  correcting  one  fault,  others 
may  be  multiplied  or  at  least  made  possible.  So  in  this 

case,  the  corrective  meas- 
ure is  largely  responsible 
for  a  new  fault,  Fig.  21, 
(3).  The  final  stroke  of 
each  letter  is  made  with 

p.    21  the  wrong  movement.    It 

should  be  executed  with 

the  under  movement,  which  gives  a  curving,  not  a  straight 
line  connecting  with  the  next  letter. 

In  the  course  of  all  corrective  and  developmental  exercises, 
keep  the  rate  of  speed  as  nearly  to  the  standard  as  possible. 
If,  in  some  difficulty,  a  slower  speed  is  for  a  moment  neces- 
sary, the  standard  should  quickly  be  resumed.  The  neces- 
sity for  this  will  be  most  obvious  in  the  general  character 
of  the  lines  of  the  letters. 

In  the  elementary  grades  it  is  better  to  make  but  three 
letters  in  a  group  and  four  groups  on  an  eight-inch  line. 
See  Elementary  Book,  p.  20.  Children  of  the  ages  and 
grades  for  which  the  Elementary  Book  is  intended  do  not 
have,  and  can  not  reasonably  be  forced  to  acquire,  the 
highly  specialized  control  of  the  movements  necessary  to 

66 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 

the  production  of  small,  fine  lines  and  characters.  They 
should  be  encouraged  to  write  in  rather  large  and  always 
fluent  manner.  The  muscular  movement  should  for  them 
be  first  of  all  made  habitual,  reflex,  automatic.  All  needed 
preventives  and  safeguards  against  wrong  methods  of 
writing  will  then  be  most  effectually  established.  One 
right  useful  habit  is  an  incomparably  better  preventive  of 
wrong  habits  in  the  same  domain  than  all  the  correctives 
that  can  be  applied.  For  further  discussion  of  this  topic 
see  How  to  Teach  Words,  p.  35. 

A  special  application  of  the  direct  oval  movement  was 
made  in  the  letter  o,  both  capital  and  small.     An  application 
°f  the  straight  line  was  made  in  the  capital  and 


teach  the       small  M  and  N.     The  letter  A,  capital  and  small, 

capital  A. 

(i)  Corre-  combines  both  of  these  movements.  This  is  a 
particularly  interesting  and  profitable  letter  for 
practice.  The  oval  motion,  necessitating  fluent  movement, 
and  the  full  stop  at  the  angular  joining,  aid  in  acquiring 
control  and  confidence.  For  this  reason  the  A  exercise  can 
be  treated  as  a  basic  drill.  The  large  oval  exercise  should 
frequently  be  practised  in  connection  with  it.  Review  Drill 
No.  3,  p.  15,  Advanced  Book,  as  a  preparation  to  the  capital  A. 

A  study  of  Drills  i  and  2,  p.  23,  Advanced  Book,  will  give 
a  correct  idea  of  the  form.  Observe  the  slant  and  shape  of 
the  oval  part  of  the  letter  as  compared  with  the  slant  and 
shape  of  the  oval  in  capital  0. 

By  retracing  the  oval  before  swinging  the  oval  part  of 
the  A,  the  hand  is  put  into  motion,  which  checks  any  pos- 
sible tendency  to  a  finger  movement.  By  swinging  the  pen 
first  to  the  top  of  the  oval,  then  making  the  final  stroke 

67 


MANUAL 

down  through  its  center,  the  pupil  will  quickly  perceive 
that  there  is  a  definite  aim  in  the  practice.  A  full  stop  at 
the  top  of  the  oval  will  insure  against  making  a  loop. 

The  purpose  of  Drill  No.  3,  p.  23,  Advanced  Book,  is  to 
test  and  develop  the  pupil's  ability  to  initiate  the  correct 
motion  and  to  continue  it  until  A  is  made  three  times. 
The  pen  is  lifted  from  the  retraced  oval  on  the  downward 
stroke  and  swung  in  continuous  motion  to  the  first  A.  The 
A  must  be  closed  at  the  top,  at  the  point  marked  x. 

As  soon  as  this  drill  can  be  executed  with  free  swinging 

(2)  Pre         movement   and  a  resulting   form   that   is   fairly 
Uminary       good,  drop  it,  and  proceed  at  once  to  make  four  ^4's 

on  each  quarter  space,  or  16  on  a  line.  See  Ad- 
vanced Book,  p.  24.  The  first  line  exercise  shows  the  swing 
from  one  A  to  the  next. 

A  good  plan  is  to  trace  with  the  dry  pen  a  few  times  over 
Drill  No.  i,  to  get  the  swing  of  it  and  to  feel  the  uninter- 
rupted swing  from  below  the  line  up  and  around  to  the 
next  following  A.  Do  not  forget  a  momentary  stop  at  the 
top,  where  the  lines  meet,  which  prevents  making  a  loop. 
Make  exercise  No.  2,  p.  24,  by  swinging  as  in  the  preceding 
exercise  No.  i.  Lift  the  pen  in  passing  from  one  A  to  an- 
other as  the  dotted  lines  indicate.  See  directions  for  count- 
ing on  p.  24,  Advanced  Book. 

If  pupils  loop  the  tops  of  the  A's  as  in  Fig.  22,  (1),  it  is 
probably  due  to  their  failure  to  stop  at  the  top  of  the  A 

(3)  The        before  starting  on  the  final  stroke.     If  the  A's  are 
correction       open  at  the  top,  the  defect  may  be  remedied  by 

urging  pupils  to  push  their  pens  forward  far 
enough  to  touch  the  beginning  point.  See  copy,  p.  24, 

68 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 


Fig.  22 


Advanced  Book.     If  such  a  fault  as  (3)  of  Fig.  22  appear 

it  is  evident  that  the  pupils,  in  applying  good  movement, 

make  the  pens  touch  the  paper  in  the  upward  swing.     The 

pens  must  not  touch  the  paper  until  the  downward  movement 

is   begun.      Pupils  who    make 

A's  too  narrow,  like  (4)  in  Fig. 

22,  should  apply  more  circular 

motion.        For     treatment     of 

other  features  of  capital  A  see 

Advanced  Book,  pp.  33  and  64, 

and  Elementary  Book,  p.  23. 

In   deciding  what  points  to 
emphasize  at  the  beginning  of 
the  study  and  practice  of  a  new  letter,  it  is  well  to  ascer- 
tain what  letter  or  letters  the  new  letter  may  re-  „ 
semble.     When   this    question    is    answered,    one  teach  the 
should  also  try  to  foresee  what  faults  may  appear 
and  how  most  economically  and  certainly  to  block  or  correct 
them. 

The   letter  a   obviously   resembles    in    important  parts 
both  u  and  o.     The  second  problem  will  plainly  bring  into 
view  the  facts,  (1)  that  if  a  is  left  open  at  the  top  (1)  Com; 
it  will  be  confused  with  u,  Fig.  23,  (1),  and  if  the  fated 
final  stroke  is  curved  toward  the  next  letter,  in- 
stead of  dropping  to  the  base  line  before  starting  toward  the 

next  letter,  it  will  necessarily 
resemble  o,  Fig.  23,  (2).  These 
points  should  be  clearly  fore- 
seen before  presenting  the 
letter  to  the  class.  The  pupils' 
69 


Fig.  23 


MANUAL 

attention  should  be  led  to  observe  that  in  all  a's  in  the 
copy,  p.  25,  Advanced  Book,  and  Elementary  Book,  p. 
24,  the  tops  are  closed,  and  that  the  final  stroke  in- 
variably touches  the  line  before  the  motion  to  the  next 
letter  is  begun. 

The  a  should  be  narrow  and  the  connecting  line  between 

(2)  study      two  a's  should  be  nearly  straight.     Pupils  often 
of  the  model.  nee(J   £O    De   cautioned   against   exaggerating   the 
curvature   of   the   connecting    line.      Observe    the    regular 
spacing,  which  is  about  as  wide  as  two  a's  between  the  a's. 

For  advanced  grades  the  word  manna,  Advanced  Book, 
p.  25,  is  an  especially  profitable  word  for  practice,  com- 

(3)  Prac-      prising  as  it  does  five  letters,  which  correspond 
tice.  jn  number  to  the  letter  drill  above,  and  furnishing 
a  review  of  the  m  and  n.     The  word  can  be  written  four 
times  on  a  line  with  clear  and  regular  spacing  between 
letters  and  between  words.     The  spacing  between  letters 
should  be  equal  to  the  width  of  m.     If  necessary,  have  pupils 
employ  dotted  lines  as  illustrated  in  the  first  word. 

The  rate  of  speed  that  corresponds,  approximately,  to 
the  rate  of  speed  for  oval  exercises  is  16  words  in  a  minute. 
Note  the  supplementary  words  for  practice.  In  all  word 
practice,  at  least  one  page  of  each  word  should  be  written.  For 
elementary  classes  shorter  exercises  and  words  are  provided. 
The  size  of  letters,  and  spacing  between  letters  and  words  are 
adapted  to  the  probable  abilities  of  children  of  these  grades. 
See  Elementary  Book,  p.  24. 

The  small  i  and  u  are  chosen  here  because  they  con- 
tribute to  the  development  of  ease  and  freedom  in  an  under 
motion  of  accurate  spacing,  and  a  uniform  slant.  See 

70 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 

Advanced  Book,  p.  26,  Elementary  Book,  pp.  22  and  27, 
for  copies  with  full  directions  for  practice.  The  downward 
stroke  is  short,  but  straight,  and  should  slant 

How  to 

toward  the  center  of  the  body.     The  hand  must  teach  the 
move   with   the   pen.      Never   allow   any   finger  ^maU  * and 
movement    in    making    these    letters,    however  (i)  General 
strong   the   tendency.      The    under    motion    be-  direction- 
tween  the   letters   is   distinct  and  must   be  so  made  in- 
variably. 

Counting  for  a  group  of  u's  is  best  done  by  1-2,  1-2,  1-2, 
1-2,  at  first,  instead  of  1-2,  3-4,  5-6,  7-8.  Changing  the 
figures  seems  to  be  distracting.  When  the  rhythm  is  es- 
tablished the  count  given  in 
Advanced  Book,  p.  26,  may  be 
used.  Avoid  too  much  rolling 
motion,  which  gives  such  a 


product  as  shown  in  Fig.  24.  Flg'  24 

Letters  n  and  u  are  frequently  confused  with  each  other. 
The  n  requires  a  distinct  over  motion,  and  the  u  a  distinct 
under  motion.  Exercise  No.  i,  page  27,  Advanced  Book,  is  in- 
valuable for  developing  skill  in  making  these  letters  clear  and 
distinctive,  free  from  any  possible  confusion  with  each  other. 
The  time  and  rhythm  to  be  observed  in  this  practice  may 
be  suggested  by  saying  1-2,  3-4, 1-2,  3-4, 1-2  or  n-u-n-n-n. 
The  latter  is  probably  the  better. 

In  writing  the  word  minion,  pupils  should  let  the  pen  run 
continuously  to  the  top  of  the  o,  where  a  slight  stop,  in  the 
movement  will  insure  control  of  the  next  stroke  and  also 
result  in  better  letters.  Remember  that  the  o  is  closed  and 
the  tops  of  w's  and  n's  are  round. 

71 


MANUAL 

The  letter  e  is  often  made  like,  and  mistaken  for,  the  small  i. 

The  loop  of  e  is  often  closed  through  carelessness.     Give, 

therefore,  attention  to  the  loop  and  see  that  the 

teach  the       correct  movement  is  made  to  produce  it.     It  may 

small  e.        g{ve  a  correct  idea  to  the  pupils  to  say  "Make  the 

(1)  General     *  *  J          . 

directions.      e  so  you  can  see  the  white  paper  through  its  top. 

The  final  stroke  is  made  with  a  full  under  motion. 
Six  e's  in  a  group  with  continuous  movement  and  to  an  even, 
regular  count  of  1-2-3-^-5-6,  will  meet  the  normal  require- 
ments. Regular  spacing  will  allow  five  groups  to  a  seven- 
inch  line.  The  standard  speed  is  22  to  25  groups  a  minute. 
See  Advanced  Book,  pp.  28  and  29,  and  Elementary  Book,  p.  22. 

The  word  mine  (Advanced  Book,  p.  29)  involves  especial 
emphasis  of  these  points  :  good  movement ;  over  motion  in  m 
and  n ;  a  sharp  point  at  the  top  of  i ;  a  loop  in  the  upper  part 
of  e ;  the  space  between  the  letters  equal  to  the  width  of  an 
m ;  and  the  final  stroke  swung  decidedly  upward.  The  rhythm 
may  be  clearly  indicated  by  naming  the  letters,  as  m-l-n-e. 

The  word  mine  is  an  excellent  movement  drill,  and  as  such 
should  be  practised  frequently  until  the  pupils  can  write  it 
from  20  to  25  times  per  minute  easily  and  well  with  the 
muscular  movement.  See  instructions,  Advanced  Book,  p.  29. 

The  initial  stroke  of  this  letter  is  a  short  under  motion 

which  should  begin  on  the  line,  never  below  it.     Unless  the 

initial  stroke  begins  on  the  line,  it  will  be  straight, 

teach  the       a  condition  which  causes  the  letter  to  slant  too 

small  s.         much.      The   top    of   the   s   should    be    sharply 

directions,      pointed,  and  the  bottom  should  be  entirely  closed. 

The   space  between   the  upward  and    downward 

strokes  is  narrow. 

72 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 


The  attention  of  pupils  may  well  be  directed  to  specific 
points  through  questions.  Say  :  "  Is  the  s  round  or  angular 
at  the  top  ?  Is  the  s  open  or  closed  at  the  bottom  ?  Is  the 
s  wide  or  narrow  ?  Is  the  initial  stroke  straight  or  curved  ?" 
Pupils  should  answer  these  questions  on  the  basis  of  their 
study  of  the  copy,  Advanced  Book,  p.  30,  Drill  i.  The  count 
for  the  s  is  1—2,  with  a  slight  prolongation  of  the  2  to  insure 
its  being  closed  at  the  bottom. 

If  pupils  are  inclined  to  make  the  top  of  the  5  round,  as 
Fig.  25,  line  (1),  they  should 
make  a  short  stop  at  the  top 
as  well  as  at  the  bottom.  If  the 
letters  are  crowded  together, 
as  in  line  (2),  a  wider  swing  be- 
tween letters  will  correct  this. 
The  closing  of  s  at  the  bottom 
is  important.  It  should  not 
be  as  in  line  (3)  nor  as  in  line 
(4), .where  they  are  closed  too 
near  the  top.  If  the  downward  stroke  is  heavy  as  in  line  (5), 
too  heavy  pressure  on  the  pen  is  probably  the  cause.  The 
downward  strokes  should  be  as  light  as  the  upward  strokes. 
The  correct  speed  for  writing  s's  is  16  groups  per  minute. 

The  word  misses  is  especially  good  as  a  practice  Exercise 
(1)  because  the  space  between  the  letters  may  be  meas- 
ured exactly  by  the  width  of  the  ra,  and  (2)  be-  (2)  Dir&> 
cause  following  the  m  in  which  the  over  motion  is  tionsfvr 
dominant,  the  remainder  of  the  word  is  made  with  °J 
the  under  motion.      In  this  the  exercise,  Advanced  Book, 
p.  30,  No.  2,  has  given  preparation. 

73 


Fig.  25 


MANUAL 


Fig.  26 


Common  faults  that  may  appear  in  pupils'  work  are  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  26.  In  the  first  specimen  the  ra  is  too  wide  and 
the  spacing  between  the  letters  is  too  narrow.  In  the 

second  line  the  m  is  angular 
at  the  top  and  the  loop  of  the 
e  is  closed.  In  the  third  the 
s's  are  round  at  the  top ;  and 
in  the  last  line  they  are  open 
at  the  bottom. 

Attention  should  be  directed 
continually  to  the  correct 
form  of  the  letter  so  that  these  faults  can  be  avoided  through 
Attention  preparatory  training.  The  teacher  may  make  use 
to  correct  of  suggestive  phrases  in  the  count  controls  and  at 
the  same  time  maintain  the  necessary  speed  and 
rhythm.  Such  phrases  have  already  been  presented.  New 
and  appropriate  forms  may  easily  be  devised  for  any  letter 
or  exercise,  the  principal  requirement  being  that  they  must 
not  distract  attention  from  the  real  work  in  hand  or  retard 
and  disturb  the  rate  of  speed  and  rhythm.  It  is  quite  too 
easy  and  cheap  to  employ  phrases  that  seriously  interfere 
with  pupils'  work,  and  provoke  detrimental  emotional  reac- 
tions, a  decidedly  harmful  attitude  that  cannot  readily  be  con- 
verted into  a  better  or  be  fully  repressed  later.  As  has  been 
repeatedly  stated,  the  emotional  tone  and  the  attitude  of 
pupils  must  be  favorable  if  the  results  are  to  be  at  all  educa- 
tive and  productive  of  skill.  Emotion  dominates  in  much 
of  our  behavior  and  in  most  marked  degree  in  this  mode, 
which  may  of  course  ultimately  be  quite  fully  mechanized 
or  automatized. 

74 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 

If  in  the  employment  of  such  phrases  there  should  for  a 
brief  moment  be  a  slight  retardation  of  the  speed  of  move- 
ment, the  aim  should  be  definitely  in  mind  to  regain  the 
desired  speed  very  quickly.  It  is  always  possible  to  trace 
a  rich  crop  of  faults  in  movement  and  product  to  a  rate 
of  speed  that  is  too  far  below  the  standard.  And  these  errors 
are  often  refractory  to  the  very  end,  as  experience  abundantly 
confirms.  The  standard  rate  of  production,  as  may  readily 
be  verified  by  computation,  will  be  about  16,  possibly  more, 
words  in  a  minute.  . 

When  the  pronunciation  of  the  names  of  the  letters  of 
the  word  is  used  as  speed  and  rhythm  control,  the  quantity 
of  the  letters  may  be  somewhat  as  follows.  The  m  must  be 
prolonged  perhaps  twice  as  long  as  the  s.  The  i  is  shorter, 
perhaps  about  one-fourth  the  length  of  m.  Dashes  of  differ- 
ent lengths  may  suggest  their  relative  value,  as  m  I  s  s  e  s. 

Both  styles  of  script  r  are  given  in  ,this  series. 
We  consider  first  the  shoulder-form  of  r,  Advanced     °w^h 
Book,  p.  32.     This  form  is  more  widely  used  than  small  r. 
the  form  described  in  the  Advanced  Book,  p.  42, 


and  it  is  far  less  likely  to  be  confused  with  other 
letters. 

The  practice  of  s  in  the  preceding  lesson  is  directly  pre- 
paratory to  the  r.  The  initial  stroke  of  s  corresponds  with  the 
initial  stroke  of  r.  The  turning  point  of  the  top  of  r  is  just 
a  little  higher  than  that  of  i.  The  chief  characteristic  of 
this  style  of  r  is  the  little  angular  shoulder  in  upper  part. 
This  shoulder  depends  for  its  value  upon  the  full  recognition 
of  the  two  distinct  angles  required  in  its  construction. 

Pupils  will  quickly  perceive  the  rhythm  of  the  movement 
75 


MANUAL 

in  writing  r,  if  the  manner  of  counting  suggestively  controls 
their  efforts.  The  count  should  suggest  a  momentary  pause 
at  the  apex  of  the  letter  to  insure  the  correct  formation  of 
the  necessary  angles.  It  must  be  admitted  that  r  presents 
peculiar  difficulties  for  counting  or  oral  control  of  rhythm 
and  speed.  Experiments  seem  to  show  that  the  proper  count 
is  less  than  1-2-3  and  more  than  1-2.  Probably  the  phrase 

1  an'  2  that  is  sometimes  used  in 

musical  tempo  expresses  the  time 
most  satisfactorily.  It  needs  to  be 
said  in  singing  fashion,  if  one  may 
so  express  it.  When  the  feeling  of 
the  movement  is  rightly  interpreted 
and  expressed  in  the  1  an  2,  1  an'  2, 

there  will  be  no  obstacle  to  early  success  in  the  making 
of  this  letter. 

If  r  is  made  too  narrow  at  the  top  it  will  re- 
(2)  The  es-    semble  ^  as  m  jme  (j)    j^g   27 ;  if  it  is  too  broad, 

tabhshment 

of  correct       or  the  curve  in  the  top  is  exaggerated,  it  will  re- 

JJJrwifc*.  •    sem°le  e,  as  in  line  (2) .     If  the  upward  stroke  of  r 
is  straight,  the  downward  stroke  will  usually  tend 

to  curve  too  much,  as  line  (3). 

In  the  practice  of  the  e-r-e-r-e-r  combination,  it  is  best 

to  indicate  the  rhythm  by  pronouncing  the  names  of  the 

letters,  as  e-r-e-r-e-^r. 

The  script  models,  arrears  and  runners,  Advanced  Book, 
Direc_      p.   32,    should   be  thoroughly  practised,  as   they 

tionsfor        not  only  present  r  in  connection  with  other  letters 
already  studied,  but  also  afford  a  review  of  these 

letters ;    namely,  a,  e,  s,  u,  and  n.     The  regular  and  there- 

76 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 

fore  clear  spacing  between  the  letters  is  especially  to  be 
observed  and  followed  in  practice. 

The  second  style  of  >r,  Advanced  Book,  p.  42,  is  not  new  by 
any  means,  as  some  seem  to  suppose,  but  has  been  in  use 
several  hundred  years.  Its  chief  advantage  is  The  second 
that  it  can  be  made  slightly  more  rapidly  than  the  form  of  r- 
first  style  of  r.  It  is  quite  as  legible  when  made  correctly. 
But  precision  and  accuracy  are  indispensable  if  it  is  to  be 
made  so  that  it  cannot  be  confused  with  v,  n,  or  x. 

This  type  of  r  is  made  by  combining  the  first  stroke  of  m 
and  the  last  stroke  of  w.  Be  sure  to  retrace  the  downward 
stroke  to  avoid  the  appearance  of  a  v,  as  in  Fig.  (1)  The 
28,  line  (1).  Swing  the  final  stroke  up  to  prevent  correct  form. 
a  resemblance  to  n,  as  line  (2),  and  do  not  retrace  the 
upward  stroke  so  far  that  it  will 
resemble  x,  as  line  (3). 

The  count  for  this  r  is  1-2,  the  1 
slightly  prolonged  and  the  2  stac- 
cato or  short  and  quick. 

The  capital  C  is  another  of  the 
direct  oval  group  of  letters.  A 

review  of  the  direct  oval  movement  exercise  and  capital  0 
will  be  an  appropriate  and  helpful  preliminary 
practice  for  C.     In  the  Advanced  Book,  pp.  34, 
35,  36,  especially  p.  34,  Exercise  No.  i,  there  are 
directions  that  combine  C  and  the  retraced  oval  in  directions. 
a  specific  movement  drill.     Here  one  may  direct 
the  child's  attention  to  the  correct  form  of  the  letter  through 
questions  as  follows : 
In  what  direction  is  the  first  stroke  of  the  C  made  ? 

77 


MANUAL 

Is  the  first  stroke  straight  or  curved  ? 

Is  the  starting  point  the  highest  point  in  the  letter  ? 

Which  is  wider,  the  loop  in  the  C  or  the  part  to  the  left  of 

the  loop  ? 

What  is  the  length  of  the  loop  ? 
In  what  direction  should  the  pen  be  moving  when  it  is  lifted 

from  the  paper  ? 

These  questions  should  help  the  pupils  form  a  correct 
idea  of  the  chief  features  of  the  letter  and  the  movement 
required  to  write  it.  It  will  be  beneficial  here  to  swing  with 
the  dry  pen  over  the  copy  a  few  times  to  get  definitely  the 
actual  feeling  of  the  movement  in  making  the  letter.  « 

The  next  step  is  to  put  the  hand  in  motion,  then  at  the 
right  instant  write  C  and  without  hesitating  complete  four 
ovals  around  it.  Count  1-2-3-^-5-6,  with  the  value  of  the  1 
count  very  much  less  than,  possibly  one-half  that  of,  the 
succeeding  counts.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  represents 
the  shortest  stroke  in  the  letter. 

Exercise  No.  2,  on  page  34,  Advanced  Book,  is  one  that  will 
constrain  pupils  to  develop  the  ability  to  make  C  with  the 
muscular  movement.  The  oval  is  a  full  space  high  and  C 
a  little  less  than  a  full  space.  The  count  is  1-2-3-^-5-6  for 
the  retraced  oval,  and  1-2,  1-2,  1-2,  for  each  group  of  three 
C"s.  The  count  for  three  C"s  may  also  be  given  as  follows  : 
1-2,  3-4,  5-6 ;  or  1  swing,  2  swing,  3  swing. 

While  the  form  of  the  C  is  not  to  be  neglected,  the  chief 
aim  in  the  practice  of  this  drill  is  to  develop  and  establish 
securely  a  good,  free,  and  accurately  controlled  swinging 
movement.  An  important  item  is  to  have  the  lines  in  C 
as  light  and  smooth  as  those  of  the  retraced  ovals. 

78 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 

In  making  C"s,  the  next  practice  step,  the  count  should  be, 
as  stated  in  Advanced  Book,  p.  35 ;  Elementary  Book,  p.  30, 
1-2,  3-4,  or  1-swing,  2-swing,  etc.  The  number  of  C's  to  be 
made  in  a  minute  is  determined  by  dividing  200,  the  number 
of  ovals  per  minute,  by  3.  Remember  that  the  aim  is  to 
learn  how  to  make  good  letters  at  the  rate  of  speed  that  is 
demanded  in  practical  writing. 

In  Fig.  29,  (1)  shows  C's  that  were  made  too  (2)  Direc~ 

tions  to 

slowly;  (2)  C  s  that  are  too  narrow;  (3)  C"s  with  secure  cor- 
tops  too  narrow;   (4)  C"s  with  loops  mere  dots.  Tectform- 

While  learning  to  make  C  with  the  muscular  movement, 
some  pupils  may  tend  to  make  it  with  an  impulsive  swing 
brought  to  a  sudden  Direc 


full   Stop   Of     the   Writ-    ticms  for  /$    /ft     fft   fi)  ft) 

ing  machinery  at  the  applicatiotl-  /-  C  (^  C 
end.  Special  training  is  needed 
to  enable  them  to  make  C  with 
a  free  movement  and  still  reserve 
the  power  to  continue  the  move- 
ment in  forming  other  letters 

*        t   11        •  Fig.  29 

of  a  following  word. 

The  first  line  Co,  Advanced  Book,  pp.  36  and  65,  and  the 
first  line,  Advanced  Book,  p.  31,  are  suggested  for  practice  to 
develop  the  desired  skill.  When  the  first  letter  following  C 
makes  necessary  a  slight  stop  in  the  movement,  as  o  or  a, 
this  stop  should  emphatically  be  utilized  as  an  aid  in  ac- 
quiring better  control.  Pupils  will  realize  its  advantage  by 
first  practising  Co  as  a  unit  with  the  counting  control  ex- 
pressed by  the  phrase  capital  C-o.  When  they  respond  to 
this  with  confidence,  pupils  will  find  it  easy  to  control  the 

79 


MANUAL 

pen  in  writing  the  remainder  of  the  word,  to  capital  C-o,  m-e, 
the  comma,  as  elsewhere  in  these  counting  devices,  marking 
a  slight  stop,  at  the  top  of  o.  In  writing  Come  it  is  best 
to  allow  a  slight  pause  after  the  o  is  made ;  but  in  Cannon, 
it  is  necessary  to  stop  also  momentarily  before  the  a  is  made. 
Therefore  in  having  class  drill  on  the  word  Cannon  the 
naming  of  the  letters  should  be  as  follows :  Capital  C, 
a-w-n-o,  n. 

The  chief  faults  to  be  looked  for  are  shown  in  Fig.  30. 
(1)  The  o  is  finished  by  a  stroke 
in  the  wrong  direction;  (2)  the 
spacing  is  irregular  and  ill  pro- 
portioned; (3)  the  o  resembles  a 
v,  and  there  is  an  angle  in  the  top 
of  the  m ',  (4)  the  final  stroke  is 
made  in  the  wrong  direction. 

The  movement  making  c  is  quite 
like  that  of  i,  the  only  difference 

being  the  dot  or  hook  in  the  top  of  c.  This  dot  or 
hook  is  what  gives  distinctive  character  to  c,  differen- 
Howto  tiating  it  from  i  or,  perhaps,  e.  The  down- 
teach  the  ward  stroke  of  c  should  for  study  purposes  be 
CD  General  compared  with  the  downward  stroke  of  o.  Al- 
directions.  though  this  stroke  may  be  somewhat  curved  with- 
out rendering  it  illegible,  a  nearly  straight  downward  stroke 
gives  it  a  very  pleasing  appearance.  The  count  is  1-2  for 
each  c,  with  a  slight  accent  on  the  1 .  Five  c's  may  be  counted 
as  follows  :  dot  1,  dot  2,  dot  3,  dot  4,  dot  5. 

The  writing  lessons  for  teaching  small  c  are  found  in  the 
author's  Elementary  Book,  p.  32,  and  Advanced  Book,  p.  37. 

80 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 

If  the  dot  is  omitted  as  in  Fig.  31,  line  (1),  the  (2) 
letter  will  resemble  i ;    if  there  be  too  much  circu- 
lar motion  in  the  downward  stroke,  the  letter  will  rect  form. 
have  an  ungainly  appearance,  as  in  line  (2). 

In  writing  the   word   access,   Advanced  Book,   p.   37,  as 
a  movement  exercise,    stop   the 
movement  slightly  at  the  top  of 
each  c  and  at  the  bot-   ,g,  ^ 
torn    of   each   s.      See  tions  for  Ap- 
that  dots  or  hooks  are  plio 

in   the   tops    of  the    c's,  that  an  open  loop  is  in  e,  and 
that  each  s  has  a  sharp  top  and  is  closed  at  the  bottom. 

The  capital  E  is  another  of  the  direct  oval  group  of  letters. 
For  preliminary  practice  the  direct  oval,  Advanced  Book, 
p.  15,  and  the  capital  How  to 
C,  p.  35,  should  be  re-  teach  the 

.  ,    '  .„  capital  E. 

Viewed.    I  he  specific  ex-    (1)  General 

ercise,  Advanced  Book,  Directions. 
p.  38,  should  then  be  traced  with 
the  dry  pen   to  get   the   motor 
Fi    32  sensation   of   its   form  and  size, 

after  which  there  should  be  thor- 
ough practice  with  ink  to  the  count  of  1-2,  3-4,  5-6,  7-8, 
9-10.  Begin  the  E  with  a  dot.  Make  the  top  and 
bottom  nearly  the  same  size.  The  top  and  bottom  consist 
of  parts  of  two  small  circles. 

For  lesson  directions  see  the  author's  Advanced  Book,  pp.  38 
and  66. 

The  attention  of  the  class  may  be  directed  to  the  critical 
points  in  the  form  of  the  letter  by  questions  as  follows: 

G  81 


MANUAL 

Should  E  occupy  the  full  space  between  two  blue  lines  ? 
(2)  Direc-  Does  E  begin  with  a  dot?  Where  is  the  loop 
in  E  located?  In  what  direction  does  the  loop 


secure  cor- 


rect form.  seem  to  point?  In  completing  an  E,  in  what 
direction  should  the  pen  be  moving  as  it  is  lifted  from 
the  paper? 

Make  E  to  a  count  of  1-2-3,  or  dot,  2-3,  with  a  slight 
accent  on  the  1  or  dot.  Exercise  No.  2,  p.  38,  Advanced  Book, 
is  excellent  for  use  in  developing  continuity  of  motion  after 
making  the  capital  E.  The  count  for  this  exercise  is  1, 
2-3-4-5-6-7.  Note  the  number  to  be  made  on  a  line. 

Pupils  should  make  about  forty  -five  good  capital  E's  in  a 
minute.  Common  faults  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  32.  (1)  in- 
stead of  the  dot  at  the  top  there  is  a  loop,  which,  moreover, 
touches  the  loop  in  the  middle  of  the  letter  ;  (2)  the  left 
side  of  E  is  too  flat,  and  reveals  lack  of  the  circular  motion  ; 
(3)  the  E  is  not  well  proportioned,  that  is,  the  top  is  too 
small,  and  the  lower  part  is  too  large.  In  a  well-formed 
E  the  loop  invariably  points  directly  toward  the  right  or 
possibly  slightly  downward,  but  never  upward  as  in  line  (2)  . 
How  to  The  w  is  a  combination  of  u  and  the  last  part 

teach  the  of  ^g  smaii  O-  This  fact  should  be  clearly  per- 

small  w.  . 

(i)  General    ceived  by  the  class. 


directions.  rffas  lesson  will  be  found  fully  developed  in  the 
author's  Advanced  Book,  p.  39,  and  in  the  Elementary 
Book,  p.  28. 

There  is  no  better  way  to  give  the  pupils  the  idea  of  the 
(2)  The  correct  formation  of  a  letter  than  by  comparing  it 
d7oara^t  w^1  ^ers  ^ey  have  previously  practised,  parts 
form.  of  which  are  used  in  the  construction  of  a  new  letter. 

82 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 

Suggestive  questions  may  be  used  to  direct  attention  to 
critical  points.  Of  what  letters  previously  practised  is  the 
w  composed  ?  Are  there  points  or  turns  at  the  bottom  of  the 
w  ?  Compare  the  width  of  the  last  part  of  the  w  with  the 
width  of  the  first  part.  Is  the  connecting  line  between  two 
w's  straight  or  curved  ?  These  and  similar  questions  may 
be  asked  to  focus  attention  on  the  correct  form. 

Pupils  nearly  always  make  w  too  wide.     This  fault  may  be 
corrected  (1)  by  having  pupils  leave  a  space  between  two 
w's  a  little  wider  than  a  w ;    and  (2)  by  having  them  make 
the   w's    narrow    enough    to 
write  four  groups  of  four  w's 
each  —  16  w's  —  on    a   line. 
See  Advanced  Book,  p.  39. 

Count  1-2-3  for  each  w, 
and  say  the  2-3  more  quickly 
than  the  1,  as  I  2  3.  Pause 
slightly  in  finishing  the  w  and  Fig  33 

see  that  the  first  part  is  like  u. 

The  faults  which  the  teacher  may  expect  are  shown  in 
Fig.  33.  In  line  (1)  the  w's  are  too  wide  and  the  spacing 
between  them  is  too  narrow;  in  line  (2)  there  are  angles, 
and  not  turns,  in  the  bottoms  of  the  w's  ;  in  line  (3)  the  third 
point  or  dot  in  the  top  of  the  w  is  omitted ;  in  (4)  the  first 
part  is  too  wide  and  the  last  part  too  narrow,  making  w 
resemble  an  i  and  a  carelessly  formed  o,  or  a  v. 

The  word  answers  can   be  written   four   times  (3)  Direc_ 
on  a  line,  with  proper  and  regular  spacing,  as  just  tionsfor 
above  defined,  between  letters.     To  do  this  will 
constrain  pupils  to  make  w  narrow.     In  spelling  the  word 

83 


MANUAL 


The  lessons  on  the  small 


in  class  drill,  a  slight  pause  in  the  movement  should  be 
suggested  at  the  bottom  of  s,  and  another  after  the  w,  as 
a-n-s,  w-e-r-s.  A  little  extra  time  is  required  to  finish  w 
properly,  and  fortunately  extra  time  is  given  by  pronouncing 
the  w  properly.  See  that  no  angles  appear  in  n,  and  give 
time  to  form  the  top  of  r  correctly. 

The  small  letter  v  is  a  combination  of  the  last  part  of  small 
H  m  and  the  last  part  of  the  small  w.     Begin  v,  as 

teach  the       in  beginning  m,  with  a  combination  of  the  over 
and  the  under  motion,  and  finish  it  with  a  point 
and  a  horizontal  curve.     Make  a  slight  pause  in  finishing 
this  letter. 

may  be  found  in  the  author's 
Advanced  Book,  p.  40;  and 
Elementary  Book,  p.  29. 

You  may  find  such  faults  as 
those  shown  in  Fig.  34.  In 
line  (1)  the  v's  resemble  o's 
that  are  left  open,  probably 
because  of  the  wrong  move- 
ment in  making  the  first  part 
of  the  letter,  a  movement 
which  gives  it  an  angular  top  and  not  a  turn.  In  line  (2) 
the  0's  resemble  one  style  of  r,  because  they  are  sharply 
angular  at  the  bottom.  In  line  (3)  the  identity  of  the 
letter  is  in  doubt,  because  the  dot  or  point  in  the  last  part 
of  the  v  is  omitted.  In  line  (4)  the  v's  are  far  too  wide, 
and  irregular  both  in  size  and  spacing. 

Questions  may  be  asked  as  follows :    From  what  letters 
do  we  derive  the  parts  which  are  combined  to  make  letter  v  ? 

84 


Fig.  34 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 

How  many  turns  are  made  in  a  correctly  formed  v  ?  How 
many  angles  ?  What  kind  of  movement  or  motion  is  made 
between  the  v's  ?  What  kind  of  connecting  line  ? 

Count  1-2  for  each  v ;  and  have  pupils  swing  out  just 
enough  between  the  v's  to  make  four  groups  of  five  letters 
each  on  a  line. 

In  the  application  of  this  lesson  give  special  attention  to 
the  writing  of  the  words  river,  revive,  vain,  move,  waive. 
These  words  comprise  letters  previously  practised. 

The  x  may  be  made  in  three  different  ways ;   but  the  way 
most  commonly  practised,   and   least  likely  to  cause  the 
letter  to  lose  its  identity,  is  that  shown  in  the  Howto 
copies   referred   to   above.     The   x   involves   the  teach  the 
over-under  motion,  as  in  the  last  part  of  m  and  n, 
and  an  upward  stroke  just  halfway  between  the  two  turns. 
The  x  will  be  crossed  more  accurately  by  those  who  habit- 
ually make  the  stroke  upward.     The  stroke  making  this 
line  should  have  the  same  slant  as  the  connecting  strokes, 
which  are  always  upward.     Words  in  which  x  is  used  should 
be  written  entirely  through,  and 
then    the    x    crossed,    i's    dotted, 

and  t's  crossed. 

Ti  •         n   i  i       » 

It  is  well  to  note  any  such  x  s 

as   are   shown   in   Fig.    35.      The 
chief  cause  of  these  faults  is  the 


crossing  of  the  x.     It  should  slant 

more  and  should  cross  the  downward  stroke.      Corrective 

exercises  will  be  necessary  in  individual  cases  which  the 

teacher  will  easily  find  by  casual  inspection  of  the  pupils' 

work. 

85 


MANUAL 

THE  UPPER  LOOP  LETTERS 

Those  who  write  fluently,  easily,  and  rapidly,  without  fa- 
tigue, depend,  as  we  have  already  shown,  almost  entirely 
upon  the  muscles  of  the  arm  and  shoulder.  These  larger 
muscles  are  so  trained  and  brought  under  control  as  to  be 
used  almost  exclusively,  not  only  in  carrying  the  hand  and  pen 
across  the  page  but  also  in  making  the  countless  detailed 
and  specific  movements  that  form  the  letters,  weave  them 
into  words,  and  the  words  into  sentences. 

It  is  therefore  dangerous  to  suggest  even  a  slight  use  of 
the  finger  movement  in  writing.  It  certainly  should  not  be 
suggested  without  proper  qualification.  But  it  is  the  con- 
sensus of  opinion  that  a  slight  movement  of  the  fingers  in 
connection  with,  but  subordinate  to,  the  arm  movements  may 
well  be  used  in  making  the  upper  loop  letters. 

The  I  forms  the  basic  drill  for  the  development  of  all  the 
upper  loop  letters,  /,  6,  /,  h,  k,  and  d.  It  consists  of  a  well- 
Teaching  curved  upward  stroke  and  a  downward  stroke 
the  small  l.  £na£  js  as  nearly  straight  as  it  can  be  made  without 
stopping  the  movement.  Pupils  should  be  taught  to  make  Vs 
to  a  single  count,  and  at  a  rate  of  speed  which  conforms  to 
the  movement  and  speed  required  in  general  writing.  See  the 
author's  Muscular  Movement  Writing,  Advanced  Book,  p.  47. 

The  first  exercise  (Advanced  Book,  p.  47)  is  valuable  in 
developing  skill  in  writing  the  upper  loop  letters.  Begin- 
ning, as  it  does,  with  the  straight-line  movement  forward 
and  backward  along  the  line  of  vision,  when  the  paper  is 
properly  placed,  it  establishes  the  slant  of  all  upper  loop 
letters.  It  is  to  be  made  a  full  space  high  with  a  continuous 

86 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 


movement  and  an  even,  regular  count  of  20,  as  follows: 
1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10  — 1-2-3-^-5-6-7-8-9-20.  Pupils 
should  be  instructed  to  make  the  straight-line  motion  at  first 
for  from  seven  to  ten  counts,  and  then  gradually  to  change 
to  the  loop  motion  without  changing  the  speed.  This  has 
proved  to  be  a  better  plan  than  to  have  pupils  make  a 
definite  number  of  straight  lines  and  then  of  loops.  It  is 
advisable  to  let  the  class  practise  this  exercise  a  few  min- 
utes before  specifying  the  number  of  times  it  is  to  be  written 
on  a  line.  This  enables  the  pupils  to  get  the  feeling  of  the 
necessary  movement,  before  they  are  called  upon  to  con- 
centrate their  attention  upon  spacing  and  other  features 
involved.  This  exercise  may  well  be  taken  as  a  preliminary 
drill  in  each  lesson  in  which  upper  loop  letters,  /,  6,  /,  h,  k, 
and  d,  are  to  be  studied  and  practised. 

Questions   may   be   used   to   direct   attention   to   critical 
points  as  follows :     Is  the  top  of  the  /  angular  or  round  ? 
What  is  to  be  the  height  of  this  letter?     Is  the   The  critical 
upward    stroke   straight   or   curved?       What   of  P0"1*8 
downward    stroke?     Should   the   turn    at   the   bottom   be 
broad  or  narrow  ?     Does  the  I  begin  above,  below,  or  on  the 
base  line  ? 

Look  for  faults,  especially  such  as 
those  shown  in  Fig.  36.  In  (1)  the 
tremulous  lines  show  that  the  rate 
of  speed  was  far  too  slow ;  (2)  the  Z's 
are  too  tall ;  (3)  the  slant  too  great, 
probably  because  the  upward  strokes 
were  too  nearly  straight ;  (4)  the  Ts 
are  too  narrow. 

87 


Fig.  36 


MANUAL 

Regulate  the  movement  by  a  count  of  al-2-3-4-5-6  for 
each  group  of  six  Us.  The  very  short  a  preceding  the  first 
The  rate  of  count  is  a  signal  for  the  first  swing  upward.  Pupils 
speed.  should  make  about  18  groups  of  6  I's  each  at  first 

and  gradually  increase  the  speed  until  they  can  make  23 
groups  in  a  minute.  This  is  the  average  speed  at  which 
good  I's  must  be  made  in  general  writing. 

In  practising,  the  words  miller  and  allow  (see  Advanced 
Book,  p.  48)  are  particularly  good  words  for  advanced 
classes.  In  the  former  word  aim  to  make  a  space  between 
letters  equal  to  the  width  of  the  m  (see  copy) ;  and  in  the 
latter  word  make  the  space  between  the  letters  equal  to 
the  width  of  w. 

Until  the  pupils  become  accustomed  to  the  correct  move- 
ment the  teacher  should  name  the  letters,  thus  m-i-l-l-e-r 
and  a—l—L—o-w.  Prolong  the  sound  of  such  letters  as  m  and 
w  as  formerly  suggested.  See  that  pupils  make  the  I's 
alike ;  avoid  angles  in  m ;  close  o  and  a ;  and  form  properly 
the  top  of  r. 

Each  class  of  letters  is  based  upon  some  particular  move- 
ment exercise.  Throughout  this  series  the  appropriate 
HOW  to  movement  exercises  for  each  lesson  have  either 
teach  the  been  given  in  the  lesson  or  suggested  in  the  text. 
(i)  General  Each  lesson,  for  instance,  in  which  upper  loop 
direct™™.  ietters  are  taught,  should  begin  with  a  drill  on 
the  first  exercise  on  p.  47,  Advanced  Book.  For  reference 
see  the  author's  Advanced  Book,  p.  49,  and  Elementary 
Book,  p.  39. 

,  The  small  b  is  a  combination  of  the  I  and  the  last  part 
of  the  w,  both  of  which  were  presented  in  the  word  allow, 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 


Advanced  Book,  page  48.  These  letters  should  now  be  re- 
viewed. Review  letters  previously  taught  whenever  they  are 
used  in  whole  or  in  part  in  the  construction  of  new  letters. 
This  provides  systematic  and  thorough  review  of  all  im- 
portant letters. 

Direct  attention  of  the  pupils  to  the  points  in  previous 
practice  that  are  produced  in  making  the  letter.  Ask  ques- 
tions as  follows :  Of  what  letters  that  you  have  practised 
is  b  made  up  ?  How  high  should  the  top  of  b  extend  above 
the  line  on  which  you  are  writing  ?  Should  it  reach  the  line 
above?  Should  the  top  be  round  or  sharp?  Should  the 
bottom  part  be  sharp  ?  How 
high  should  the  final  dot  be 
placed  ?  What  is  the  final  stroke 
of  the  letter  ? 

The  count  for  b  is  1-2.  The 
approximate  rate  of  speed  is  15 
groups  of  5  b's  in  each,  in  a 
minute.  This  is  rapid  enough  to 
insure  a  free  movement  but  not 
so  rapid  as  to  prevent  the  pupils 
from  forming  the  letters  well. 

Five  common  faults  are  shown  in  Fig.  37.     In  (1)  tremu- 
lous  lines   indicate   a  slow  and   excessive  finger 
movement.     In  (2)  the  loops  are  too   long.     In  tions  to 
(3)  the  letters  slant  too  much,  because  the  up  securecor- 

^    reel  forms. 

strokes  do  not  curve  enough.     In  (4)  the  tops  and 
bottoms  of  the  letters  are  not  round.     In  (5)  the  final  dot 
which  distinguishes  the  b  from  the  /  is  omitted. 

The  words  bubbles  and  sublime  are  particularly  good  words 

89 


Fig.  37 


MANUAL 

for  practice.  Pupils  should  check  the  movement  slightly  in 
(3)  Direc-  making  the  final  dot  of  each  b.  This  may  be  sug- 
ezfended  gested  to  pupils  by  prolonging  slightly  the  sound 
practice.  of  b:  as,  b,  u-b,  b,  l—e-s  and  s-u-b,  l—i—m-e. 
These  prolonged  sounds  or  pauses  should  not  be  too  strongly 
emphasized,  —  just  enough  to  cause  pupils  to  think  of  the 
letters  to  be  formed  and  to  stimulate  them  to  control  defi- 
nitely the  necessary  movement  in  making  the  letters. 
These  words  give  practice  in  making  b  as  an  initial  and  as 
a  medial  letter. 

The  letter  /  may  be  prepared  for  by  reviewing  the  exer- 
cise in  Advanced  Book,  p.  13.  This  gives  practice  in  the 
HOW  to  extended  movement  necessary  in  making  this 
teach  the  letter.  The  motion  of  the  pen  in  making  /  is 
quite  like  that  in  making  b,  the  chief  difference 
being  in  the  length  of  the  former  letter.  The  top  of  /  is 
round  as  is  that  of  b  and  should  nearly  reach  the  line 
above  the  base  line ;  the  bottom,  also  round,  should 
extend  about  half  the  space  below  the  base  line.  The 
upward  stroke  of  the  lower  part  of  /  should  reach  the 
base  line  and  there  join  the  down  stroke.  The  final  stroke 
is  a  horizontal  curve  adaptable  to  the  next  following  letter, 
if  any. 

For  reference,  see  the  author's  Advanced  Book,  p.  50; 
Elementary  Book,  p.  40. 

The  count  as  given  in  copy  is  1-2  for  each  /.  As  to  the 
number  per  minute,  see  Advanced  Book,  p.  50. 

Attention  may  well  be  directed  to  critical  points  by  sug- 
gestive questions  as  follows :  How  high  should  the  top  of  / 
reach?  How  far  below  base  line  should  the  bottom  of  / 

90 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 

extend?  Should  the  top  and  the  bottom  be  angular  or 
round?  Should  the  down  stroke  be  straight  or  curved? 
Where  should  the  final  up  stroke  join  the  down  stroke? 
What  is  the  direction  of  the  final  stroke? 

Common  fau'ts  are  illustrated 
in  Fig.  38.  In  (1)  the  /'s  were 
made  too  slowly.  In  (2)  the 
/'s  are  too  long.  In  (3)  they 
are  sharply  pointed,  and  in  (4) 
the  final  up  stroke  joins  down 
stroke  too  high.  p.g  3g 

In  making  the  application  in 

the  lesson  the  writing  of  the  words  finest  and  baffle  must  be 
done  with  care.  The  movement  is  checked  slightly  on 
completing  the  /  and  the  6.  All  the  loops  alike  should 
be  regular  in  size  and  form. 

The  letter  q  is  a  combination  of  a  and  the  lower  part  of  /. 
It  is  therefore  advisable  to  take  it  up  for  study  and  prac- 
tice directly  after  /.     It  is  not  without  benefit  to  How  to 
the  pupils  to  practise  a  few  minutes  both  a  and  /  teach  the 
in  preparation  for  the  construction  of  the  new 
letter  q.     As  in  a,  so  in  q,  the  top  must  be  closed  as  in  a 
point.     The  lower  part  of  the  letter  extends  about  half  a 
space  below  the  base  line  of  writing.     It  is  necessary  some- 
times to  caution  pupils  to  make  a  round,  not  a  sharp  turn 
at  the  bottom  of  the  letter.     With  a  count  of  1-2-3,  keep 
an  optimum  speed  rate  as  previously  determined. 

See  Advanced  Book,  p.  51 ;  Elementary  Book,  p.  41. 

Attention  should  be  given  to  the  critical  points  as  shown 
in  Fig.  39.     The  g's  in  (1)  are  open  at  the  top.     Those  in 

91 


MANUAL 

(2)   are  angular  at  the  bottom.     Those  in   (3)   show  the 

joining  too  high. 

In  applying  the  lesson  to  the  writing,  the  words  squire 
and  sequel  require  a  momentary 
stop  in  the  movement  in  joining 
the  final  up  stroke  with  the  down 
stroke  at  the  base  line,  as  indicated 
by  commas  in  the  following  :  s-q, 
u-i-r-e  and  s-e-q,  u-e-L 


Flg-  39  It  may  be  necessary  to  repeat  that 

s's  are  sharp  at  top  and  closed  at  bottom  ;    that  open  loops 

HOW  to         are  m  e's  anc^  ^s;  anc^  an  anSular  top  and  shoulder 
teach  the       are  needed  in  r. 

The  small  h  was  taught  in  the  lesson  How  to 
Teach  Small  Letters,  p.  30. 

The  small  k  is  the  last  of  the  upper  loop  group  of  letters. 
The  loop  in  k  is  exactly  like  that  in  h.  The  last  part  of  k 
How  to  needs  close  study  and  careful  practice  until  it  can 
teach  the  ^e  ma(Je  just  right  and  easily.  The  loop  and  the 
(i)  General  stop  at  the  base  line  are  followed  with  a  full  over 
directions.  motiOn  that  retraces  the  lower  part  of  the  down 
stroke  of  the  loop  ;  then  folding  under  it  forms  a  very  small 
oval.  The  movement  should  be  checked  slightly  after 
forming  the  little  oval  or  loop,  and  the  second  down  stroke 
should  be  made,  as  nearly  parallel  with  the  down  stroke  of 
the  loop  as  possible.  The  bottom  of  k  should  be  narrower 
than  the  bottom  of  h.  See  Advanced  Book,  p.  53. 

Attention  may  be  directed  to  the  critical  points  through 
suggestive  questions.  How  tall  is  the  loop  in  k  ?  Should 
the  top  of  the  loop  be  pointed  or  round  ?  How  does  the 

92 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 


jr. 


Fig.  40 


width  of  the  bottom  of  k  compare  with  the  width  of  the  bot- 
tom of  h  ?  Should  the  two  down  strokes  in  the  bottom  of 
the  k  be  on  the  same  or  different  slants  ?  Questions  similar 
to  these  may  well  be  asked. 

The  count  for  k  is  more  than 
two  and  less  than  three.  The 
phrase  1  an'  2,  1  an'  2,  1  an'  2,  1 
an'  2,  when  said  just  right,  indi- 
cates the  rhythm  and  time  of  the 
movement  in  making  a  group  of 
four  k's.  Prolong  the  1  a  little 
on  account  of  the  length  of  the 
loop  and  the  slight  stop  at  the 
base  line,  as  1  an'  2. 

The  faults  that  commonly  occur  in  writing  k  are  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  40.     The  tremulous  lines  in  (1)  show  (2)  Direc. 
lack  of  freedom  in  movement,  an  overstrain  per-  tionsf°r 
haps  to  write  with  a  finger  movement.     The  slant  correct 
shown  in  (2)  is  too  marked.     In  (3)  the  loops  are  form- 
quite  too  long.     The  lower  part  of  k  in  (4)  is  too  wide  by 
much,  and  in. (5)  a  very  familiar  fault  is  in  the  size  of  the 
loop  of  the  last  part  of  the  letter. 

See   that   pupils   in   practising   the   words   thinkers   and 
bankers  make  the  loops  alike  in  fe's,  h's  and  k's.   ,3)  Direc_ 
Remind  them  if  necessary  about  taking  ample  time  tions  for 
to  form  correctly  the  upper  part  of  the  top  of  r. 
The  last  part  of    each    b,   h,   and    k  should    be  finished 
carefully. 

Begin  t  with  a  short,  full  under  motion  that  starts  exactly 
on  the  base  line.     The  top  of  t  should  be  short  and  so  well 

93 


MANUAL 


retraced  as  to  appear  like  a  single  straight  line.  Do  not 
form  a  loop  in  the  top  of  t.  The  height  is  somewhat  less 
HOW  to  than  that  of  /.  If  pupils  make  a  small  e  before 
teach  the  eacn  i  (see  Exercise  i,  p.  54,  Advanced  Book),  3, 
(i)  General  well-curved  initial  stroke  in  the  t  will  be  developed. 
directions.  The  t  is  crossed  near  the  top.  Observe  the  final 
t  made  without  a  cross  stroke.  Make  the  top  short  and 
sharp.  The  final  stroke  is  a  short  aver  motion  retracing 
slightly  the  down  stroke.  See  Advanced  Book,  p.  54. 

Develop  the  letter  by  asking  questions  on  the  critical 
points.  Is  t  a  retraced  line  or  a  loop  ?  How  does  the 
height  of  the  t  compare  with  that  of  /?  What  is  the  dis- 
tinguishing characteristic  of  this  letter?  How  is  it  distin- 
guished from  I  ? 


Fig.  41 


Fig.  42 


The  faults  shown  in  Fig.  41  are  frequently  met  in  writ- 

ing.    The  t's  of  (1)  slant  too  much,  because  the 

tionsfor        up  strokes  are  too  nearly  straight.     The  t's  of  (2) 

securing  cor-    naye  j  j      fa     t  The  t  Qf  ^  ^  m   ^ 

reel  form. 

are  not  retraced,  probably  because  the  upward 
stroke  is  not  curved  enough. 

(3)  Direc-         -^n  tne  WOI>ds  intent  and  tumults,  special  atten- 
tionsfor        tion  is  to  be  directed  to  the  formation  of  the  t's, 

application.         5  j      » 

m  s  and  n  s. 


94 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 

For  copy  and  suggestions  avoid  the  common 
faults  in  Fig.  42.     Note  the  following  :  small  d 

(1)  The  oval  is  not  closed. 

(2)  The  top  is  not  retraced. 

(3)  The  oval  is  too  flat  and  the  top  slants  too  much. 

See  Advanced  Book,  p.  55 ;   Elementary  Book,  p.  37. 

The  capital  S  is  a  combination  of  the  upper  loop,  as  in 
/,  b,  f,  h,  and  k,  and  a  part  of  a  flat  oval.     Prac-  How  to 
tice  of  the  upper  loop  letters  serves  as  a  prepara-  teach  the 
tion  to'  make  capitals  S  and  G  of  which  the  upper  capl     s' 
loop  forms  a  part.     See  Advanced  Book,  p.  36 ;  Elementary 
Book,  p.  45. 

The  angular  endings  of  S,  G,  I,  T,  F,  and  B  are  recom- 
mended to  make  it  convenient  to  unite  these  capitals  and 
the  letters  following  in  words.  The  class  may  be  ques- 
tioned as  follows :  Where  does  the  initial  stroke  of  S  start  ? 
Is  the  initial  stroke  straight  or  curved?  Is  the  top  of  S 
pointed  or  round  ?  At  what 
height  do  the  upward  and 
the  downward  lines  cross? 
See  suggestions  on  p.  56, 
Advanced  Book. 

Avoid  the  common  faults  shown  in  Fig.  43.     Note  the 
following : 

(1)  The  initial  stroke  starts  below  the  base  line  and  is  too  nearly 

straight. 

(2)  The  lines  cross  too  near  the  top,  making  the  top  too  small. 

(3)  The  lines  cross  too  near  the  bottom,  making  the  top  too  large. 

(4)  There  is  not  enough  space  between  the  upward  and  the  down- 

ward strokes. 

95 


MANUAL 

Exercises  No.  i  and  No.  2,  p.  57,  Advanced  Book,  should 

be  reviewed    as    a   preparation    to   make   the    G. 

teach  the       Follow  the  suggestions  on  p.  57,  Advanced  Book, 

capital  G.      m  Developing   this   lesson.     See   Advanced  Book, 

p.  57,  and  Elementary  Book,  p.  44. 

Pupils  will  always  be  benefited  by  tracing  each  new  exercise 
with  the  dry  pen  before  attempting  to  make  it. 

This  tracing  trains  the  muscular  sense  whereby  pupils 
know  how  it  feels  to  make  the  movement  required  to  form 
the  letters  correctly.     It  should  always  be  done  to  correct 
time  or  rhythm,  regulated  by  the 
teacher's  count. 

Question  pupils  as  follows :   In 
what  particulars  is  the  G  like  the  S  ? 
In  what  particulars  do  they  differ  ? 
At  what  height  do  the  lines  cross  ? 
p.    44  At  what  height  is  the  point?    See 

No.  2,  p.  57,  Advanced  Book. 
Avoid  the  faults  shown  in  Fig.  44. 

(1)  The  loop  is  too  short. 

(2)  The  loop  is  too  long. 

(3)  The  top  slants  too  much  because  the  initial  stroke  is  too  nearly 

straight. 

THE  LOWER  LOOP  LETTERS 

All  the  lower  loop  letters  (g,  y,  z,  j,  p)  are  based  upon  a 
HOW  to  combination  of  the  straight  line  and  the  reverse 
teach  the  oval  movement.  The  first  exercise  on  p.  58, 
Advanced  Book,  is  an  excellent  one  to  use  in  de- 
veloping the  movement  used  in  making  these  letters.  See 
Advanced  Book,  p.  58 ;  and  Elementary  Book,  p.  47. 

96 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 


Count  10  twice  for  each  exercise,  as  follows : 
1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10—1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-20.  Have  pu- 
pils make  the  straight  lines  during  nearly  all  of  the  first  ten 
counts  and  then  gradually  change  to  the  loop  motion  with- 
out changing  the  time.  In  counting  1-2  for  the  g,  prolong 
the  second  count  slightly  to  give  time  to  form  the  loop. 

Ask  questions  as  follows :  What  letter  previously  prac- 
tised forms  a  part  of  the  g  ?  Is  the  oval  part  of  the  g  open 
or  closed?  If  left  open  what  letter  might  it  resemble?  Is 
the  bottom  of  the  loop  sharp  or 
round?  How  long  is  the  loop? 
(It  should  extend  down  about 
halfway  between  two  blue  lines). 

Attention    should    be    given    to 
critical  points  as  indicated  in  Fig. 

45-  Fig.  45 

(1)  These  g's  resemble  y's  because  the  ovals  are  open. 

(2)  The  loops  are  too  narrow. 

(3)  The  loops  are  too  long. 

The  first  part  of  the  y  is  like  the  last  stroke  of  m,  n,  and  h, 
and  like  the  first  part  of  v.     The  loop,  of  course,  How  to 
is  like  the  loop  in   the   g.     See   Advanced  Book,  teach  the 
p.  59 ;   Elementary  Book,  8I 
p.  48. 

Have  the  pupils  review  the  first 
exercise  on  p.  58,  Advanced  Book, 
as  a  preliminary  movement  drill. 

The  y  is  a  combination  of  parts 
of  what  letters  ?     How  long  is  the 
97 


Fig.  46 


MANUAL 

Suggestive     loop  ?    Is  the  downward  stroke  straight  or  curved  ? 
questions.      js  tne  bottom  of  the  loop  pointed  or  round  ? 
Study  Fig.  46  and  note  the  following  critical  points : 

(1)  The  first  part  of  the  y  has  an  angle  at  the  base  line  where  an 

under  motion  should  be  made. 

(2)  The  tops  of  the  y's  are  too  wide  and  the  loops  are  too  narrow. 

(3)  The  loops  are  too  long. 

HOW  to  Follow  the  directions  for  writing  these  letters 
small  letters  giyen  m  the  Advanced  Book  of  Muscular  Move- 
z,  j,  and  p.  ment  Writing,  on  pp.  60,  62,  and  63  respectively. 
Follow  the  directions  on  pp.  69  and  70,  Advanced  Book.  Ob- 
How  to  serve  that  the  first  part  of  the  H  curves  much  more 
capital^  than  does  the  first  or  corresponding  part  of  the  K. 
and  H.  Avoid  the  faults  shown  in  Fig.  47. 


(1)  The  first  stroke  is  curved  too 

much. 

(2)  The   last   part   of    the   K   is 

joined  to  the  first  part  too 
near  the 


Fig.  47  (3)  The  two  parts  of  K  are  not 

united. 

(4)  There  is  a  loop  at  the  bottom  of  H. 

(5)  The  loop  uniting  the  two  parts  of  H  is  too  low. 

(6)  The  lines  forming  H  are  too  nearly  straight. 

See  Advanced  Book,  p.  71 ;  and  Elementary  Book,  p.  54. 
This  letter  is   based  almost  wholly  on  the  straight-line 
Howto         movement.     Therefore,  Exercise  No.  i,  p.  15  of 
teach  the       the  Advanced  Book,  should  be  reviewed  in  con- 
nection with  the  specific  drill,  first  line,  p.  71,  Ad- 
vanced Book,  as  a  preparation  to  make  the  W. 

98 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 

The  first  part  of  the  W  is  well  curved,  like  the  first  part 
of  H  in  the  preceding  lesson.  The  point  in  the  center  at 
the  top  is  higher  than  the  first  part  of  the  W.  The  final 
stroke  is  a  short  over  motion.  Have  pupils  make  a  slight 
stop  in  the  movement  at  the  base  line  on  the  first 
downward  stroke. 

Note  the  following  critical 


points,  Fig.  48 : 

Fig.  48 

(1)  The  point  at  the  center  is  too  short. 

(2)  The  points  at  the  bottom  are  too  close  together. 

(3)  The  final  stroke  is  too  long. 

(4)  The  bottom  points  are  retraced. 

The  J  belongs  to  the  reverse  oval  group  of  letters.     Have 
pupils  practise  the  reverse  oval  exercise,  Advanced  Book, 
p.  15,  as  a  preparation  to  make  the  J.     The  prac-  Howto 
tice  of  the  specific  movement  drill,  Advanced  Book,  teach  the 
p.  72,  first  line,  establishes  the  form  of  the  J  and  capltal  J' 
makes  certain  the  application  of  the  muscular  movement. 
Count  six  for  the  reverse  oval  and  the  top  of  J,  and  finish 
the  letter  on  the  seventh  count. 

See  the  author's  Advanced  Book,  p.  72;  and  the  Elemen- 
tary Book,  p.  63. 

The  second  line  exercise,  p.  72,  Advanced  Book,  is  to  be 
used  in  developing  the  ability  to  continue  the  movement 
after  making  the  J.  A  very  helpful  count  for  this  exercise 
is  swing  2-3-4-5.  The  word  swing  suggests  the  full  oval 
motion  necessary  to  make  the  top  of  J. 

Questions  may  be  employed  as  follows  to  direct  attention  : 
In  making  J  what  direction  should  the  pen  be  moving 

99 


MANUAL 


when  it  touches  the  paper?     How  do  the  top  and  bottom 
of  J  compare  in  length?    in  width?     Where  do  the  lines 


cross  t 


Avoid  the  faults  shown  in  Fig.  49. 


Fig.  49 
(4)  The  top  is  made  on  a  back  slant. 


(1)  The   initial    stroke    is    made 

downward. 

(2)  The  lines  do  not  cross  at  the 

base  line. 

(3)  The  first  upward  stroke  does 

not  curve  enough. 


Follow  the  directions  on  p.  73,  Advanced  Book,  in  de- 
veloping the  lesson  on  the  7. 

HOW  to  The  following  questions  are  suggestive  :  In  what 

capital  /.       direction  should  the  pen  be  moving  when  it  touches 
the  paper?     In  what  direction  should  the  pen  be  moving 
when  it  is  lifted  from  the  paper  ?     Where  do  the  lines  cross  ? 
See  Advanced  Book,  pp.  73  and 
74;     and    Elementary    Book, 
p.  62. 

Avoid  the  faults  shown  in 
Fig.  50. 


Fig.  50 

(1)  The  pen  was  moving  downward  when  it  touched  the  paper. 

(2)  The  top  of  the  letter  is  sharply  angular. 

(3)  The  letter  is  finished  with  a  turn  and  swing  instead  of  an  angle 

and  swing. 

(4)  The  top  slants  backward. 

See  the  Advanced  Book,  p.  78 ;   and  the  Elementary  Book, 
p.  56. 

100 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 

Follow  the  directions  on  the  above  pages  in  Howto 
developing    the    lesson.     Note    particularly    the  teach  the 
flat  loop  and  final  stroke,  as  this  will  serve  as  a  capltal  * 
preparation  to  complete  the  L  properly. 

See  the  Advanced  Book,  p.  79 ;    and  the  Elementary  Book, 
p.  57. 

In  making  L  the  pen  should  be  in  motion  when  it  touches 
the  paper  and  it  should  continue  in  motion  until  it  is  lifted 
from  the  paper.     The  L  is  made  with  three  well-  How  to 
controlled   swings   of   the   pen.     The    movement  teach  the 
may  be  regulated  by  counting  1-2-3,  or  by  saying  capltal  L' 
swing  2,  swing.     The  latter  phrase  suggests  action.     The 
purpose  of  the  first  exercise  on  p.  79,  Advanced  Book,  is 
to  put  the  hand  in  motion  before  making  the  L,  and  thereby 
make  the  application  of  a  free  movement  certain. 

Question  pupils  as  follows :  In  making  the  L,  in  what 
direction  should  the  pen  be  moving  when  it  touches  the 
paper?  In  what  direction  should  the  pen  be  moving  when 
it  is  lifted  from  the  paper? 
The  lines  cross  each  other 
at  two  points;  locate  the 
upper  crossing  of  the  lines. 
Is  the  top  pointed  or  round  ? 

What  is  the  direction  of  the  upper  loop  ?  What  is  the  di- 
rection of  the  bottom  loop  ?  Is  the  final  stroke  above  or 
below  the  base  line?  What  other  letter  is  finished  just 
like  the  L  ? 

Avoid  the  faults  shown  in  Fig.  51. 

(1)  The  lines  cross  too  high,  making  the  top  too  small. 

(2)  The  downward  stroke  is  too  nearly  straight. 

101 


MANUAL 

(3)  The  bottom  loop  is  not  made  flat  on  the  line. 

(4)  The  final  stroke  is  above  the  base  line. 

The  downward  stroke  in  the  D  is  made  quite  like  the 
downward  stroke  in  the  L  in  the  previous  lesson.  The 
How  to  small  loop  at  the  bottom  of  the  D  is  like  the  loop 
teach  the  at  the  bottom  of  the  L  except  that  it  is  much 
smaller.  The  final  part  of  the  D  is  like  the  corre- 
sponding part  of  the  capital  0.  It  would  aid  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  D  to  review  the  0,  as  given  on  page  17,  Advanced 
Book.  Be  sure  to  have  pupils  loop  the  final  stroke  of  the 
D  around  the  starting  point  and  swing  upward.  See  Ad- 
vanced Book,  p.  80 ;  and  Elementary  Book,  p.  58. 

Questions  may  be  asked 
as  follows  :  In  what  di- 
rection should  the  pen  be 

p.    52  moving  when  it  touches 

the    paper?       In    what 

direction  should  the  pen  be  moving  when  it  is  lifted  from 
the  paper?  At  how  many  points  does  the  D  touch  the 
base  line  ? 

Avoid  the  faults  in  Fig.  52. 

(1)  The  downward  stroke  is  curved  too  much. 

(2)  and  (3)  The  D  does  not  touch  the  base  line  at  two  points. 
(4)  The  top  of  the  D  is  not  closed. 

The  stem  of  the  T  and  F  is  a  slanting  line,  slightly  curved 
How  to  at  the  top,  and  well  curved  at  the  bottom.  It  is 
capitals  T  quite  like  the  downward  stroke  in  S,  L,  and  D.  By 
and  F.  omitting  the  upward  stroke  in  a  correctly  formed 
capital  S,  the  stem  of  a  correctly  formed  T  or  F  would  be 

102 


HOW  TO  TEACH  LETTERS 

made.  A  review  of  the  S,  see  p.  56,  Advanced  Book,  would 
aid  in  establishing  the  form  of  the  stem  of  the  T  or  F. 
See  Advanced  Book,  pp.  81  and  82 ;  and  Elementary  Book, 
p.  46.  See  pp.  81  and  82,  Advanced  Book,  for  further 
suggestions. 

These  letters  are  combinations  of  the  straight-line   and 
the  reverse  oval  movements.     As  a  preparation  to  make 
these  letters  the  general  movement  drills  on  page 
15,  Advanced  Book,  should  be  reviewed.     The  pur-  teach  ^g 
pose  of  the  first  exercise  in  each  lesson  (pp.  75,  76,  caPitals  p> 
77)  is  to  make  certain  that  the  hand  is  put  in 
motion  before  making  the  letter.     In  making  the  P,  B,  and 
R,  have  the  pupils  retrace  the  first  downward  stroke  in  each 
letter.     See  Advanced  Book,  pp.  75, 
76,  77;    Elementary   Book,  pp.   64, 
65,  66. 

Follow    the    suggestions    on    the 
pages  indicated  above,  in  teaching 


these  letters.  Fig'  53 

Avoid  the  faults  shown  in  Fig.  53. 

(1,  2,  and  3)  The  posts,  or  straight  lines  are  not  retraced. 

(4)  The  final  stroke  crosses  the  upward  stroke  instead  of  the  down- 

ward straight  line  or  post. 

(5)  The  B  is  closed  at  the  bottom,  whereas  it  should  be  open. 

See  copy,  Advanced  Book,  p.  76. 

(6)  The  top  of  B  is  too  narrow. 

These  letters  are  based  upon  the  straight-line  movement 
primarily,  combined  with  a  distinct  over-under  motion. 
The  downward  lines  in  the  U  and  the  Y  should  be  parallel. 
There  should  be  nicely  rounded  turns  at  the  base  line. 

103 


How  to 
teach  the 
capitals  U, 
Y,  and  V. 

Have 


MANUAL 

The  Y  should  be  finished  with  a  short,  full  loop  extending 
half  the  distance  between  two  blue  lines.  The  final  stroke 
of  V  should  be  short.  The  pen  should  be  mov- 
ing toward  the  right  side  of  the  paper  when  it  is 
lifted  from  the  paper.  See  Advanced  Book,  pp.  84, 
85,  86;  and  Elementary  Book,  pp.  59,  60,  61. 
the  pupils  avoid  the  faults  indicated  in  Fig.  54. 

In    (1),    (2),  and  (3)  the  U,  Y, 

and  V  are  angularly  pointed  at 
the  base  line  where  these  letters 
should  be  nicely  rounded.  In 
(4),  (5),  and  (6)  the  first  turns 
at  the  top  are  too  narrow  and 
the  turns  at  the  bottom,  or 
base  line,  are  too  broad.  The 
should  not  be  as  wide  as  those  at 


Fig.  54 

turns  at  the  bottom 


the  top. 


104 


CHAPTER  IX 

HOW  TO  TEACH  FIGURES 

FIGURES  should  be  legible,  small,  and  arranged   in   an 
orderly  way.     They  are  made  best  with  a  sharp,  How  to 
clear-cut  line  that  evidences  snap  and  quickness,  figures. 
An  expert  figure  maker  places  the  pen  on  the  paper  with 
precision,  forms  the  figures,  and  lifts  the  pen  quickly. 

See  Advanced  Book,  pp.  43,  44,  45,  and  46. 

The  plan  of  practice  outlined  in  the  pages  above  cited  has 
proved  effective  in  developing  all  the  qualities  just  men- 
tioned. By  making  figures  across  the  blue  lines  as  indicated 
in  the  Advanced  Book,  regular  and  orderly  arrangement  will 
be  emphatically  encouraged  from  the  very  beginning.  By 
gradually  reducing  their  size  until  the  figures  do  not  seem  to 
be  crowded  when  they  are  written  on  and  between  the  lines, 
the  size  and  spacing  will  be  regulated.  If  the  teacher  counts 
to  regulate  the  rhythmic  time,  sharp  and  clear-cut  lines  and 
orderly  columns  will  quite  certainly  be  developed.  By 
making  the  figures  on  and  between  the  lines  in  unison  with 
the  count,  accuracy,  precision  and  speed  will  be  secured. 

Legibility  is  a  result  of  emphasizing  in  practice  the  chief 
characteristics  of  individual  figures.  Each  figure  must 
stand  for  itself.  The  legibility  of  a  figure  is  not  improved 
by  its  context,  as  is  that  of  individual  letters. 

Certain  figures  are  easily  mistaken  for  each  other ;    other 

105 


'•  77777^7 

2,  //////  l/  if  ^ 


MANUAL 

figures  are  never  mistaken  for  each  other.  One  never  mis- 
takes a  4  for  a  3,  a  5  for  a  6 ;  but  4  is  sometimes  made  so  that 
it  resembles  7,  as  in  Fig.  55.  Made  correctly  these  figures 
are  quite  easily  distinguished.  But  it  is  due  to  the  careless 
tendency  shown  in  Fig.  55,  against  which  precaution  must  be 
taken  in  practice,  that  possible  confusion  occurs.  Other 
figures  sometimes  mistaken  for  each  other  are  7  and  9, 
1  and  0,  0  and  6,  0  and  8,  5  and  3,  0  and  9. 

A  discussion  of  careless  tendencies  in  making  figures  never 
fails  to  create  class  interest  in  the  subject.  By  examining 

figures  one  by  one  to  detect 
possible  faulty  tendencies,  the 
correct  formation  of  each  figure 
is  emphasized  and  the  reason 
~ ~  '  for  making  it  as  in  the  model 

is  pretty  clearly  brought  out. 
For  instance,  in  discussing  figures  4  and  7,  the  teacher  may 
write  a  line  of  7's,  similar  to  those  in  Fig.  55,  on  the  black- 
board. The  class  is  to  observe  and  note  what  change  takes 
place  in  the  formation  of  the  figure  7  that  causes  it  to 
resemble  a  figure  4-  It  will  be  noted  that  the  points  in 
•the  top  of  the  7  are  exaggerated  and  the  final  downward 
stroke  stops  too  short.  If  the  final  downward  stroke 
had  been  continued  farther ;  i.e.  well  below  the  base  line, 
the  product  would  be  an  unmistakable  7.  This,  then, 
should  be  a  sufficient  reason  for  finishing  7  with  a  line  that 
reaches  well  below  the  blue  line. 

In  like  manner  the  figure  4  should  be  considered.  It  will 
be  observed  that  the  same  kind  of  strokes  is  employed  in 
the  last  few  specimens  of  4  in  Fig.  55,  as  in  the  first  few; 

106 


HOW  TO  TEACH  FIGURES 

but  there  is  a  change  in  the  placing  of  the  last  stroke.  In 
the  first  4,  the  last  stroke  begins  at  a  point  higher  than  that 
of  the  first  stroke,  and  is  ended  abruptly  just  below  the  lateral 
line.  But  in  the  last  4,  the  final  stroke  begins  barely  above 
the  lateral  stroke  and  is  carried  too  far  below.  This  gives  a 
good  reason  for  beginning  the  last  stroke  high  and  ending  it, 
or  lifting  the  pen  from  the  paper,  just  after  the  lateral  line 
is  crossed. 

Figure  1  is  a  short,  light,  slanting  line. 

Figure  4  is  made  of  light  lines  that  are  straight,  or  nearly 
so.     It  should  suggest  a  small  square  or  rectangle 
in  appearance.     The  two  slanting  lines  should  be  acteristic 
parallel,  and  the  last  line,  somewhat  taller  than  features°f 

the  figures. 

the  first,  should  intersect  the  lateral  line. 

Figure  0,  or  naught,  is  like  the  letter  o  except  as  to  size. 
It  should  be  made  round  to  avoid  the  appearance  of  the 
figure  1,  and  should  be  definitely  closed  at  the  top.  Make 
it  with  pen  in  circular  motion  both  before  touching  and  in 
leaving  the  paper. 

Figure  6  begins  at  a  point  a  little  higher  than  the  other 
figures  to  prevent  its  being  mistaken  for  the  naught.  The 
initial  stroke  is  straight,  which  yields  gradually  to  a  well- 
rounded  turn  at  the  bottom  and  ends  in  a  small  loop. 

Figure  9  is  a  combination  of  letter  a  and  figure  1.  The 
final  stroke  passes  through  the  base  line  and  ends  somewhat 
below  the  base  of  other  figures.  This  averts  its  possible 
resemblance  to  0.  The  9  should  be  definitely  closed  at  the 
top ;  for  otherwise  it  may  closely  resemble  figure  7. 

Figure  7  consists  of  a  dot  or  a  short  slanting  line,  a  short 
lateral  stroke,  and  a  slanting  line  extending  to  a  point 

107 


MANUAL 

below  the  base  line.  At  least  one  half  of  the  down  stroke 
should  be  below  the  base  line.  The  reasons  for  this  have 
been  stated  in  connection  with  Fig.  55. 

Figure  2  is  begun  with  a  dot  or  a  short  slanting  line.  The 
top  of  the  figure  2  should  be  neatly  rounded,  made  with  the 
over  motion ;  and  the  bottom,  made  as  the  bottom  of  -4, 
consists  of  an  angle  and  a  short  lateral  stroke  made  as  the 
pen  is  being  lifted  from  the  paper.  This  style  of  figure  2 
can  be  made  more  accurately  and  more  rapidly  than  that 
with  a  loop.  For  this  reason  it  is  used  more  generally  by 
expert  accountants. 

Figure  3  is  begun  with  a  dot  or  a  short  slanting  line  and  is 
finished  with  two  very  small  circular  motions.  Use  a  short 
lateral  movement  toward  the  left.  The  round  motion  at 
the  center  of  the  3  should  be  so  restricted  as  to  produce 
an  angle  rather  than  a  loop.  The  pen  should  swing  to  the 
left  and  upward  as  it  is  being  lifted  from  the  paper. 

Figure  5  is  begun  with  a  short,  straight,  slanting  line  which 
is  about  one  half  the  length  of  figure  1.  The  bottom  is  just 
like  that  of  figure  3.  A  short  lateral  stroke,  which  should 
always  be  joined  to  the  first  stroke,  completes  it. 

Figure  8  begins  with  a  dot  and  the  letter  s,  made  with 
downward  motion.  The  final  stroke  should  pass  upward 
through  the  initial  dot. 

The  figures  1,  4,  5,  6,  9,  and  0  are  made  with  the  pen 
moving  as  it  touches  and  leaves  the  paper.  The  figures 
The  general  ^'  3>  7>  an(*  8  begin  with  a  definite  starting  point 
features  of  or  dot.  The  figures  4  and  6  begin  at  a  point  above 
the  other  figures.  The  figures  7  and  9  are  ended 
at  a  point  below  the  base  line  and  the  other  figures. 

108 


CHAPTER  X 

THE   USE    OF   THE   BLACKBOARD 

THE  blackboard  is  indispensable  for  class  instruction  in 
writing.     It  is  the  only  practical  means  of  showing  whole 
classes  by  concrete  demonstrations  the  important  Theuse 
phases  of  the  lesson,  as  well  as  the  process  by  of  the 
which  good   writing   is   done.     Special   emphasis 
should  constantly  be  placed  upon  the  process  of  writing. 

By  the  use  of  the  blackboard,  the  teacher  who  can  wield 
the  crayon  skillfully  can  inspire  confidence  and  can  create 
initiative  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  by  appealing  to  The  uge  of 
them  through  the  desire  to  emulate  her  skillful  the  black- 
blackboard  demonstrations.     By  the  use  of  the 
blackboard  the  teacher  can  correct  the  prevailing  faults  of 
the  entire  class  in  the  time  that  would  be  required  to  make 
the  correction  for  one  pupil  individually.     Not  only  is  there 
economy  of  time  in  avoiding  exceptions  by  the  use  of  the 
blackboard,  but  by  enlarging  the  correct  and  the  incorrect 
letter  forms  upon  the  board,  the  contrast  is  made  the  more 
striking  and  vivid.     The  blackboard  becomes  the  teacher's 
"magnifying  glass."     However,  the  blackboard  should  not 
be  used  as  a  means  of  placing  the  copy  before  the  pupils  for 
study  and  visualization. 

109 


MANUAL 

Pupils  cannot  reproduce  on  paper  what  they  have  not 
clearly  conceived  in  the  mind,  and  a  clear  conception  of 
Good  desk  8°°d  writing  results  only  from  a  careful  study 
copy  neces-  of  good  copies.  To  do  this  to  the  best  advantage, 
pupils  should  have  copies  of  the  size  and  general 
style  that  they  are  expected  to  approximate  in  their  own 
writing.  And  in  order  that  pupils  may  visualize  these  copies 
to  the  best  advantage,  they  should  be  studied  at  close  range, 
not  more  than  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  from  the  eyes. 

This  study  will  be  all  the  more  profitable  if  done  through 
the  guidance  of  a  teacher  whose  eyes  have  been  trained  to 
see  in  the  copy  what  pupils  may  not  see  if  left  to  themselves. 

Those  who  are  obliged  to  study  the  copy  written  upon  the 
blackboard  experience  many  disadvantages.  Each  of  forty 
pupils  in  a  class  must  necessarily  view  the  copy  from  a 
different  point  in  the  room.  Therefore  the  distance  and 
angle  at  which  the  copy  must  be  studied  will  vary  greatly. 
And  there  are  always  points  in  the  classroom  from  which 
it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  see  the  copy  on  the  black- 
board because  of  the  reflection  of  the  light. 

Therefore,  if  the  best  possible  results  are  to  be  achieved, 
pupils  must  be  supplied  with  desk  copies  both  because  they 
afford  an  advantage  in  visualization,  and  because  they  re- 
duce to  a  minimum  the  expenditure  of  energy  and  time  of 
the  teacher  and  the  pupils. 


110 


CHAPTER  XI 

AGE  AND    GRADE   IN   WRITING 

AT  what  age  children  should  begin  to  write  is  an  un- 
settled question.  From  the  standpoint  of  psychology 
and  physiology,  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  important  not  to 
begin  too  early.  The  health  and  growth  of  the  child  must 
be  considered  in  setting  the  time.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
few  if  any  children  can  write  when  they  enter  the  first 
year  of  school.  It  frequently  happens  that  these  children 
are  not  even  familiar  with  the  script  letters.  Under  such 
circumstances,  if  the  children  are  required  to  do  any  con- 
siderable amount  of  writing  as  such  on  paper  during  the 
first  school  year  they  will  form  a  large  number  of  wrong 
and  harmful  habits.  These  bad  habits  retard  the  progress 
of  the  child  and  serve  no  useful  purpose  in  preparing  him  for 
future  work  in  writing. 

It  requires  many  weeks  for  children  who  are  older  and 
more  mature  than  those  in  the  first  and  second  years  in  school 
to  acquire  sufficient  muscular  control  to  perform  written 
tasks  with  the  muscular  movement.  It  must  therefore  be 
self-evident  that  any  written  work,  such  as  spelling,  lan- 
guage, required  of  these  little  ones  must  be  done  in  some 
manner  other  than  muscular  movement.  In  most  instances, 
when  the  children  are  required  to  do  much  writing  on  paper 
before  there  has  been  sufficient  time  to  teach  correct  writing 

111 


MANUAL 

habits,  all  the  harmful  habits  to  which  children  are  subject, 
such  as  cramped  positions,  pinching  of  pencils  or  penholders, 
heavy  pressure  on  the  writing  instrument,  and  finger  move- 
ment are  fostered. 

Teachers  and  parents  should  not  be  overzealous,  lest  they 
neglect  or  create  conditions  that  vitally  affect  the  health 
in  addition  to  crippling  the  writing  of  the  child.  The 
fundamental  and  accessory  muscles  must  have  reached  a 
pretty  definite  degree  of  coordination,  where  such  movements 
as  those  used  in  writing  do  not  force  or  constrain,  but  afford 
only  healthful  exercise. 

It  is  a  matter  of  all  too  common  practice  to  begin  writing 
at  the  desk  during  the  first  school  year.  Indeed  it  is  some- 
times begun  as  soon  as  children  begin  the  first  year  of  school. 
Even  at  this  early  age  they  have  sometimes  been  made  to 
show  wonderful  results. 

Whether  or  not  this  early  beginning  is  best  for  the  ner- 
vous and  muscular  development  and  fitness  of  children  for 
such  work  is  altogether  irrelevant,  if  one  judges  by  the 
approval  generally  meted  out  to  such  precocious  achieve- 
ments. There  must  be  of  course  a  certain  sanction  for  this ; 
and  some  teachers  have  an  ambition  to  fulfill  expectations 
regardless  of  consequences.  Fond  parents  are  keenly  alive 
to  any  possible  neglect  of  the  native  capabilities  of  their 
children  at  this  early  age,  despite  all  that  experience  may 
say  to  the  contrary.  Where  this  spirit  prevails  children  are 
inevitably  infected  and  exhibit  an  eagerness  to  do  some 
things,  whether  or  not  they  are  physically  and  mentally 
prepared  to  do  them. 

There  is  but  one  way  to  begin  the  teaching  of  writing  at 

112 


AGE  AND  GRADE  IN  WRITING 

an  early  age  and  still  avoid  the  harmful  tendencies  referred 
to  above.  It  is  by  a  liberal  use  of  the  blackboard.  None 
of  the  technical  writing  habits  required  in  writing  at  the  desk 
enter  into  the  board  work.  Sitting  posture  at  the  desk, 
correct  movement,  penholding,  none  of  these  enter  into 
blackboard  writing.  Good  letter  formation  and  freedom  of 
movement  can  be  taught  at  the  blackboard  in  a  manner 
that  is  interesting  and  delightful  to  the  children,  without 
overtaxing  the  nervous  and  mental  energy  of  the  when  to 
teacher.  Therefore,  as  a  general  proposition  it  beg"1- 
may  be  stated  that  whenever  children  show  the  ability  to 
handle  crayon  they  may  begin  the  use  of  it  at  the  black- 
board in  making  simple  exercises  under  supervision. 

These  exercises  should  consist  of  simple  oval  exercises,  fol- 
lowed by  letters  requiring  the  least  modification  of  the  ovals 
in  their  formation,  such  as  capitals  :  0,  C,  A.  These  should 
be  followed  by  the  easier  and  simpler  small  letters,  as,  i,  u,  e, 
m,  n,  and  easy  words  in  which  the  letters  taught  are  applied. 

These  letters  should  be  made  to  a  rhythmic  repetition  of 
descriptive  phrases,  such  as  Big  round  0,  Down  around  for 
C,  Round  up  drop  for  A,  Up  down  up  for  i,  Up  round  up  for  e, 
Over  over  over  up  for  m,  etc. 

In  the  foregoing  manner  children  may  be  taught  form  and 
freedom  in  writing  without  fostering  any  bad  or  harmful 
writing  habits.  When  this  has  been  done  it  will  be  early 
enough  to  begin  teaching  children  how  to  sit  at  the  desk, 
how  to  place  the  right  arm  on  the  little  muscular  cushion 
in  front  of  the  elbow,  how  to  turn  the  finger  under  and  glide 
on  the  nails,  how  to  hold  the  pen  or  pencil  and  make  it  run 
on  the  paper.  All  these  steps  are  fully  explained  in  the 

113 


MANUAL 

author's  Elementary  Book  and  the  Advanced  Book,  Muscular 
Movement  Writing.  Then  the  children  will  be  ready  to  make 
at  the  desk  with  the  muscular  movement  what  they  are  now 
familiar  with  and  know  how  to  make  at  the  blackboard. 

The  question  may  arise  as  to  the  grading  of  Muscular 
Movement  Writing  in  the  books  themselves.  We  have 
left  out  all  reference  to  it  in  the  books  of  the  series  because 
teachers  and  superintendents  many  times  prefer  to  make 
their  own  gradation.  For  those  who  desire  an  outline  we 
suggest  the  following : 

Teach  the  letter  forms  as  given  on  page  1 1  of  the  Elemen- 
Firstand  ^ar^  Book,  and  short  easy  words  selected  from 
second  this  book  during  the  first  two  years  in  school  by 
the  use  of  the  blackboard.  This  will  familiarize 
the  little  ones  with  the  letter  forms  and  give  them  a  working 
knowledge  of  script. 

Pupils  should  be  supplied  with  the  Elementary  Book  at 
the  beginning  of  the  third  year  and  they  should  be  taught 
The  third  as  thoroughly  as  possible  the  drills  in  this  book 
year-  up  to  and  including  page  51.  This  covers  the 

movement  drills,  figures,  and  ten  important  capitals. 
The  fourth         Review  what  was  taught  during  the  third  year 
yean  and  complete  the  Elementary  Book. 

The  fifth  Begin  the  Advanced  Book  and  teach  the  lessons 

year-  to  page  64. 

Review  the  lessons  taught  during  the  fifth  year  and  com- 
The  sixth  plete  the  Advanced  Book.  If  writing  is  taught 
year>  above  the  sixth  year,  the  Advanced  Book  should 

be  reviewed  with  a  view  to  achieving  a  still  higher  degree  of 
efficiency. 

114 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


T 


HE  following  pages  contain  advertisements  of  a 
few  of  the  Macmillan  publications  on  Education 


THE  HEALTH  SERIES  OF  PHYSIOLOGY 
AND  HYGIENE 


By  M.  V.  O'SHEA,  Professor  of  Education,  University  of  Wisconsin;  Author 
of  "  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education,"  etc. ;  and  J.  H.  KELLOGG,  Super- 
intendent of  the  Battle  Creek  Sanitarium;  Author  of  "Man,  the  Master- 
piece," etc. 


Health  Habits    . 
Health  and  Cleanliness 
The  Body  in  Health  . 
Making  the  Most  of  Life 


Cloth,  111.,  12mo,  $.45 
Cloth,  111.,  12mo,  $.55 
Cloth,  111.,  12mo,  $.65 
Cloth,  111.,  12mo,  $.65 


Health  Habits.  The  purpose  here  is  to  establish  the  child  in  the  physical 
habits  and  forms  of  conduct  that  make  for  bodily  health. 

Health  and  Cleanliness.  The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  interest  children  in 
social  service  in  health ;  to  show  the  dependence  of  health  and  well-being  upon 
protection,  and  especially  against  infections  through  germs,  and  to  teach  children 
what  to  do  for  themselves  and  others  in  case  of  an  emergency. 

The  Body  in  Health.  The  human  body  is  here  presented  as  the  most  remark- 
able thing  in  nature,  in  the  variety  and  delicacy  of  its  action  and  in  the  marvelous 
adaptation  of  its  parts  and  functions.  It  presents  knowledge  with  sympathy  and 
it  leads  to  an  appreciative  understanding. 

Making  the  Most  of  Life.  This  book  directs  attention  to  the  chief  factors  in 
modern  life  which  reduce  the  vitality  and  the  health  of  people.  It  is  a  forceful  and 
constructive  treatment  of  health. 


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MUSCULAR  MOVEMENT  WRITING 

By  C.    C.   LISTER 

Director  of  Penmanship,  Brooklyn  Training  School  for  Teachers 

Elementary  Book 16  cents 

Advanced  Book 20  cents 

Teachers  Manual 


Muscular  Movement  Writing  organizes  systematically  into  two  books  the  in- 
struction in  writing.  The  Elementary  Book  is  adapted  to  the  needs  and  abilities 
of  children  in  the  elementary  school  and  is  intended  for  use  in  grades  beginning 
with  the  third.  The  Advanced  Book  is  planned  to  follow  the  Elementary  Book, 
and  completes  the  course  of  instruction  in  writing. 

The  treatment  of'Muscular  Movement  Writing  in  this  system  places  emphasis 
upon  the  following  points  :  — 

Correct  posture  to  secure  uniformity  and  ease  in  writing  and  to  establish 
hygienic  habits. 

Muscular  Movement  Practice  to  secure  perfect  motor  control  and  muscular 
coordination. 

Rhythmic  drill  to  develop  freedom,  elasticity,  and  individuality  in  writing. 

Good  form  in  the  models.  Writing  lessons,  not  copy  lessons;  and  writing 
books,  not  copy  books.  Posture,  movement,  good  form,  and  individuality  in  writ- 
ing may  be  developed  through  practice. 

The  writing  lessons  in  this  Series  have  been  carefully  worked  out  so  as  to  pro- 
vide the  utmost  help  for  teacher  and  pupil.  The  lessons  are  self-explanatory; 
there  is  close  correlation  in  the  lessons ;  and  they  make  it  possible  to  produce 
satisfactory  results  in  the  teaching  of  writing. 


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BOSTON  SAW  FRANCISCO  DALLAS 

CHICAGO  NEW  YORK  ATLANTA 


NEW  GEOGRAPHIES 


First  Book  (complete),  $0.65 
First  Book,  Part  One,  .40 
First  Book,  Part  Two,  .50 


Second  Book  (complete),  91.10 
Second  Book,  Part  One,  .65 
Second  Book,  Part  Two,  .65 


The  Tarr  and  McMurry  New  Geographies.  The  Tarr  and  McMurry  New 
Geographies  make  Home  Geography  the  basis  of  study  for  World  Geography. 

They  use  type-forms  developed  from  Home  Geography  as  a  basis  for  interpre- 
tation, appreciation,  understanding,  and  definition. 

They  make  descriptive  matter  vivid  by  appropriate  illustration ;  the  facts  plain 
by  diagram,  graph,  or  product-map;  the  visualization  complete  by  appropriate 
physical  or  colored  map,  studied  in  connection  with  the  text. 

They  emphasize  the  essentials  by  synoptical  outline.    The  leading  facts  stand 


They  retain  interest  and  make  sure  the  application  by  timely  suggestions, 
reviews,  and  comparisons. 

They  treat  each  topic  in  its  relation  to  man,  introduce  the  problem  question, 
and  bring  out  cause  and  effect  relation. 

They  appeal  to  the  child's  interest  in  human  life  and  activity,  his  wonder  and 
curiosity,  his  sympathy  and  self-activity. 

They  are  adapted  to  the  best  methods  of  teaching  and  they  suggest  methods  of 
study.  ^ 

The  books  are  mechanically  perfect.    The  maps  are  bound  in. 


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THE  GOLDEN  RULE  SERIES 

By  E.  HERSHEY  SNEATH,  GEORGE  HODGES,  and  the  late 
EDWARD   LAWRENCE   STEVENS 

The  Golden  Ladder  Book,  Third  Grade  .  .  .  $.40 

The  Golden  Path  Book,  Fourth  Grade    .  .  .  .45 

The  Golden  Door  Book,  Fifth  Grade       .  .  .50 

The  Golden  Key  Book,  Sixth  Grade      .  .  .55 

The  Golden  Word  Book,  Seventh  Grade  .  .  .55 

The  Golden  Deed  Book,  Eighth  Grade   .  .  .  .55 


The  Golden  Rule  Series  of  literary  readers  contains  selections  that  have  been 
carefully  chosen  for  their  pleasing  literary  quality.  Every  selection  gives  to  the 
reading  a  pleasure  and  a  satisfaction  that  leads  the  child  on  to  read. 

The  purpose  of  the  series  is  to  provide  a  definite  scheme  of  moral  training  year 
by  year  and  grade  by  grade  as  the  child  progresses  through  school.  For  this  it 
uses  these  literary  selections  and  literary  masterpieces. 


MORAL  TRAINING  IN  THE   SCHOOL 
AND  HOME 

Dr.    E.  HERSHEY  SNEATH  and   Dr.   GEORGE  HODGES 

Cloth,  i2nto,  So  cents 

This  book  outlines  a  definite  scheme  of  moral  training  based  upon  the  funda- 
mental expressions  of  the  child's  moral  life. 


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